Super AP World Prep

Unit 1: The Global Tapestry 1200-1450

1.1 Developments in East Asia

• The Song Dynasty Replaced Tang in 960 and ruled for three centuries. They had less land but they flourished.

• Appointed officials carrying out the empire’s policies (Imperial Bureaucracy) gave China its strength, and it would only expand + strengthen the dynasty.

• Bureaucracy had been in place since Qin

• Represented a continuity across centuries/dynasties

• Emperor Song Taizu allowed young men of lower economic status to have expanded educational opportunities

• Done in an effort to help them score well on civil service exams

• This system of demonstrating merit on exams to achieve positions gave China’s bureaucracy the name of meritocracy, and it allowed for more upward mobility than any other system of its time

• Contributed to the empire's downfall because of the bureaucracy’s size; creating so many jobs + paying officials a lot increased costs of government, harming China’s surplus wealth.

• Accomplishments of the Tang Dynasty (agricultural dev, improved roads/canals, foreign trade, technology spread) led to rapid prosperity/growth during Song Dynasty

• Ex: Grand Canal - inexpensive and efficient waterway transport system 30k miles long. Its expansion during the Song Dynasty allowed China to become the most populous trading area in the world.

• Innovators in the Song Dynasty made the first guns. Over Centuries, gunpowder/gun technology spread from China to all parts of Eurasia through the Silk Road.

• Agricultural production was expanded by Champa Rice, a fast-ripening and drought-resistant crop from the Champa Kingdom.

• Allowed farming to spread to once-impossible lands (lowlands, riverbanks, hills) and even allowed farmers to grow two rice crops (summer/winter) per year.

• Innovative Methods of Production: Elaborate irrigation systems, manure, and heavy plows pulled by buffalo allowed for agricultural expansion and success

• These Agricultural changes brought China an abundance of food, greatly increasing its population.

• Industrial Production in China soared, in part due to China’s discovery of coal allowing for greater amounts of cast iron goods.

• The massive use of Coal to power machines wouldn’t be in use until the 28th century, but China did have the greatest manufacturing capability in the world.

• By taking the carbon out of cast iron to manufacture steel, the Chinese were able to make/reinforce bridges, gates, and ship anchors, make religious items, and strengthen agriculture equipment, helping with agricultural output.

• China experienced proto-industrialization, a set of economic changes that relied more on home-based production using simple equipment under the supervision of the imperial government.

• Allowed people in rural areas to make more goods than they could sell.

• Ex: Artisans produced steel and porcelain, a highly desirable material because of its lightness, strength, and easy paintability.

• Chinese used Compass for navigation, redesigned ships to carry more cargo, and utilized paper navigation charts (ability to print) to make seafaring possible in open waters, making sailors less reliant on the sky.

• With these advances, China became the world’s most commercialized society.

• The economy changed from local to market production with porcelain, textile, and tea exports.

• Grand Canal + Advances in Naval Tech allowed for greater control of expanding internal trade in the South China Sea

• Military Power allowed Tang + Song to protect traders from bandits

• By letting the government pay people to work on public projects instead of requiring them, the Song could increase the amount of money in circulation, promoting the growth of a commercial economy.

• Other states had to provide money or goods to honor the Chinese emperor as another source of income for the Government, cementing China’s economic/political power over several foreign countries and creating stability/trade.

• This tributary system originated from the Han Dynasty

• Korea, Japan, and kingdoms in Southeast Asia were tributary states by the time of the Song.

• To show respect, anyone greeting the Chinese emperor had to bow their head until it reached the floor (kowtow)

• Zheng He’s voyages were ways to show the power of the emperor and receive tribute.

• The Song Dynasty brought an increase in urbanization, unlike the rural-centered communities of past China.

• At its height, the Song Dynasty was the most urbanized land in the world with cosmopolitan metropolises such as Chang’an, Hangzhou, and Guangzhou (Ancient capitals, port cities) boasting more than 100k people.

• Scholar Gentry: The most influential social class in China, created by the Song’s bureaucratic expansion, outnumbered the aristocracy (landowners who inherited wealth).

• Educated in Confucian philosophy

• Farmers, Artisans, and Merchants ranked below Scholar Gentry, with their positions largely based on Confucian philosophy (Low status of Merchants due to Confucian respect for hard work, and merchants simply exchanged goods with little effort)

• Peasants( worked for wealthy landowners to pay off debts) and urban poor represented the lower rungs of society

• Song dynasty provided aid to the poor and free healthcare

• Women were respected and expected to defer to men, with the practice of foot binding among aristocratic families in order to signify social status becoming strengthened during Tang/Song Dynasties.

• Foot binding hindered the movement of women, meaning they couldn’t participate in the public sphere.

• Intellectual pursuits thrived as a result of affluence, well-educated public, and varied contact with foreign nations.

• The invention of paper (2nd century) and printing (7th century, are regarded as the first culture to use woodblock printing) allowed for the availability of books and the expansion of literature throughout the era

• Ex: Song dynasty printed booklets on farming efficiency throughout rice-growing regions

• Most Peasants were actually illiterate, but China’s privileged classes (Confucian scholars) consumed and produced literature at a tremendous rate

• Emphasis on schooling created well-rounded scholar-bureaucrats in Tang/Song (Europeans with similar diverse skills would be named Renaissance men)

• Buddhism’s popularity became widespread during Tang Dynasty because of the monk Xuanzang. 3 Main Types from India came to shape Asia:

• Theravada Buddhism focused on personal spiritual growth through meditation and self-discipline and became the strongest in Southeast Asia.

• Mahayana Buddhism focused on spiritual growth for all beings, becoming strongest in China and Korea

• Tibetan Buddhism focused on chanting, and it was popular in Tibet!

• All three include belief in Four Noble Truths (eliminate desire to achieve peace), Eightfold Path, and precepts (right speech/livelihood/effort/mindfulness) that can lead to nirvana (enlightenment)

• Buddhism became popular because monks related it to Daoist principles, creating a syncretic (fused) faith Chan/Zen Buddhism

• Ex: Dharma became translated as dao (the way)

• Zen Buddhism emphasized direct meditation/experience opposed to formal learning based on studying scripture.

• The Tang Dynasty did not like that a foreign religion would have more prominence than China’s native religions, and despite monasteries’ closures and land seizures, buddhism remained popular.

• Song didn't promote it, but they remained impartial towards Buddhism, preferring to emphasize China’s native traditions

• Buddhism’s strong presence even made Confucians adopt its ideals into daily life

• Confucian idea of filial piety (respect your male leader + emperor) helped Song maintain rule in China

• A combination of rationalism and ideas of Daoism/Buddhism became popular in the countries surrounding China

• Known as Neo-Confucianism, evolved between 770-840

• Emphasized ethics rather than god/nature

1. Japan

• Had greater control of interactions with China instead of Korea/Vietnam due to sea border

• Japan’s Prince promoted Buddhism/Confucianism, and japan learnt woodblock printing

• Heian period brought Japan chinese traditions in politics, art, and literature, but Japanese writers had their own ideas (created first novel in 11th century)

• Japan had a feudal system similar to that of Europe’s, with landowning aristocrats (daimyo) fighting for control while most people were farmers

• Europe and Japanese feudalism had little social mobility but clear hereditary hierarchies

• Peasants born into economic dependency, samurai born into protectors, daimyo born into privilege similar to serfs, knights, and nobles in Euro

• Daimyo had more power than nobles in Europe bc they are more powerful than the shogun/emperor, while nobles were below monarch (industrial revolution changed this)

• European Knights followed Chivalry, Japanese samurai followed bushido

• Chivalry emphasized duty to god, countrymen, women (with love and graciousness)

• Bushido stressed frugality, loyalty, martial arts, honor unto death

• While China had a strong government that could promote trade and peace by overseeing a large civilian bureaucracy, Japan had various power struggles

• When Heian court declined (basically Japan government), a land-owning family took over (Minamoto) and installed a Shogun

• Followed by four centuries of regional rivalries among aristocrats

1. Korea

• Because of how direct their relationship was (shared land boundary), they had close contact and emulated the ideas of each other

• Like China, Korea centralized government, adopted Confucian/Buddhist beliefs, adopted Chinese writing system (even tho languages were very different)

• Difference: Aristocracy was much more powerful on korea, as Korean elite were able to prevent some Chinese reforms from implementation

• Ex: Peasants were not open to the civil service exam, so there wasn't a merit-based system for entering the bureaucracy

1. Vietnam

• Chinese relationship was more adversarial; Chinese influence was sometimes accepted and sometimes met with resistance

• Culture vastly different: Women had more freedom, nuclear families (just father, mother, children) preferred against extended families, political centralization was nonexistent

• Vietnamese women hated their inferior status under chinese and the traditions of food binding and having 2+ wives (polygyny)

• Had merit-based bureaucracy but scholar-officials had allegiance to village peasants, sometimes making revolts against the government if they saw it too oppressive.

• Deep knowledge of the land made Vietnamese guerrilla fighters very skilled, especially during their battles with the Chinese following the collapse of Tang in 8th century

1.2 Developments in Dar al-Islam

• Islamic expansion through military actions and merchant activity spread the religion from India to Spain, and Islamic leaders were known for religious tolerance for those who believed in a single god + did good actions.

• Abbasid empire had conflicts with nomadic groups (Like the Chinese) and European invaders

• Enslaved ethnic Turks from Central Asia (Mamluks) were purchased and used as soldiers and bureaucrats. These roles gave them many opportunities for advancement than other enslaved peoples

• Thes opportunities for advancement allowed them to take over the government and establish the Mamluk Sultanate, prospering by facilitating trade in cotton and sugar between Islamic world and Europe.

• Eventually lost power after Europeans intervened

• Central Asian Muslims (Seljuk Turks) challenged Abbasids through conquest of the Middle East

• Spread their control to Western China, took the title of Sultan and reduced role of the highest-ranking Abbasid from caliph to chief Sunni religious authority

• Organized groups of European Christian soldiers (Crusaders) formed to reopen access to holy sites, which Seljuk Turks started to limit, unlike Abbasids.

• Mongols (from Central Asia) conquered the remaining Abbasid Empire, ending Seljuk rule. Their westward advance was halted by Mamluks in egypt.

• Abbasid’s link connecting Asia, Europe, and North Africa was weakening as trade patterns shifted away from Abbasid-controlled Baghdad and into places farther north.

• Baghdad lost wealth and population, making it fall into decay.

• As later islamic states were shaped by Turkic peoples descending from people in Central Asia, the Islamic world was fragmented politically as many of these new states adopted Abbasid practices but remained distinct ethnically.

• Ex: Mamluks in North Africa, Seljuks in Middle East, Delhi sultanate in South Asia were partially Tuerkic

• Ottoman empire in Turkey, Safavid empire in Persia, Mughal Empire in India had roots in Turkic cultures by the 16th century

• These new states still formed a cultural religion through trade, common use of shariah for similar legal systems, and Great universities creating centers of intellectual sharing.

• Culture heavily influenced from others by carrying on the work of earlier thinkers

• Examples: Translating Greek literature into Arabic, studying mathematics texts from India and transferring knowledge to Europeans, adopting paper-making from China (Europeans learnt from them later)

• Islamic Scholars followed advice of Mohammed “Go in quest of knowledge even unto China”

• Islamic World brought many cultural innovations and achievements

• Ex: Nasir al-Din al-Tusi contributed to astronomy, law, logic, ethics, mathematics, philosophy, and medicine with a highly advanced observatory, and groundwork for trigonometry

• Ex: Ibn Khaldun acknowledged as founder of the fields of historiography (study of the methods of historians) and sociology

• Major Example: A’ishah al-Ba’uniyyh, a very prolific female Muslim Writer that made poems that reflected her broad learning and mystical illumination, as well as highlighting the contrasts between Muslims and Sufis

• Muslims focused on intellectual pursuits while Sufis emphasized introspection to grasp truths that couldn’t be understood via conventional learning

• Sufism may have began as a mystical response to love of luxury by the early Umayyad Caliphate

• Sufi missionaries tended to adapt to local cultures and traditions, winning many converts for islam and playing an important role in spreading Islam

• By following the muslim faith (maintained fair dealings, given to charity), Merchants were highly esteemed by Islamic society and their commerce helped to power the golden age of natural/moral philosophy.

• Discrimination against non-Arabs was common due to control by Islamic caliphs in non-Arab areas of Islamic expansion

• Eventually faded in 9th century as the presence of a permanent military force that didn’t own property allowed life for most inhabitants of conquered areas to remain unchanged

• People paid tribute to these islamic Caliphs rather than to Byzantine rulers

• Slaves were only allowed if they weren’t monotheistic, and they were imported from Africa, Kievan Rus, and central Asia

• Most slaves converted to Islam, after which their owners freed them

• Enslaved women had more independence than legal wives as most were concubines who would go to markets and run errands and be permitted to dance/perform musically before unrelated men, accumulating money that could potentially buy their freedom.

• Common cultural customs in Central Asia/Byzantine Empire before Muhammed, like women covering their head and faces (solidified as hijab under islam) were later associated with Islam.

• Mohammed supported women, raising their status by forbidding female infanticide, treating his wives with love and devotion, and insisting that dowries ewre paid to the future wife.

• Islamic Women had more rights than Christian/Jewish women

• Ex: They could inherit property and retain ownership after marriage, remarry, receive cash if divorced, practice birth control, and even initiate divorce

• Testifying under Sharia protected Islamic women from retaliation in court but their testimony would be worth half of a man’s

• Rise of towns and cities in Islam-ruled areas -> more limits on women’s rights

• Umayyad had ruled in Spain longer than in the Middle East, and designated Cordoba as their capital there.

• The defeat of the Islamic military against Frankish forces at the Battle of Tours showed the limits of Islamic expansion into Western Europe

• Most of Europe remained Christian but Muslims ruled Spain for next 7 centuries

• Umayyad tolerated monotheistic religions (like Abbasids), promoted trade with Chinese and Southeast Asian products

• Trade came from ships with long, thin hulls useful for carrying goods but terrible in warfare (dhows)

• Islamic State in Spain (al-Andalus) become a center of learning and influence with its large library and variety of cultures

• Ex: Ibn Rushd (Averroes in Europe) wrote influential works on law, secular philosophy, natural sciences

• The Muslims, Christians, and Jews (regarded as “people of the book”) in al-Andalus influenced one another (Jewish philosopher Maimonides influenced by Rushd’s commentaries on Aristotle, who, in turn, influenced Christian philosophers)

• Islamic innovation, scholarship, and transferred knowledge laid the groundwork for the Renaissance and Scientific Revolution in Europe (Ex: paper-making was vital to spreading ideas in Europe)

1.3 Developments in South/Southeast Asia

• Political structures shaped by religion; Interaction between Hindus/Muslims brought conflict and many new developments in art, politics, economic, religious thought; Strong islamic presence didn't affect the hindu kingdoms playing a larger role in India’s political landscape; buddhism was also existent there

• End of the Gupta Empire signified the end of the Golden Age o. India, and end of unity as a single state in South Asia, but Hinduism would bring cultural unity where political structures were being separated.

• South India was more prosperous and peaceful than North, cuz a kingdom was already there (Chola Dynasty, ruled for 400 yrs)

• After them came the Vijayanagara Empire, which embraced Hinduism bc of their leaders, and fell to Muslim Kingdoms later.

• Fall of Gupta Empire brought Rajput kingdoms (Hindu kingdoms) in North India; Tons of conflict so it showed diversity/regionalism of South Asia; Conflict made kingdoms vulnerable to Muslim armies

• Islamic presence grew as invasions ramped up: When Islamic armies invaded today’s Pakistan they barely changed anything cuz Rajput princes wielded power to limit their conquerors’ influence, When islamic forces plundered Hindu temples for riches they put mosques on holy sites making ppl mad

• Delhi Sultanate established control when islamic forces conquered city of Delhi, and their islamic-favored policies (ex: jizya, tax on non-muslims) created a lot of political tension + shaped the political history of the era

• Islamic presence didn't stop the local kingdom’s larger role in India’s decentralized political landscape

• Delhi sultanate eventually had to deal with Mongols instead of expanding south, but got conquered by the Mughals later

• While most South Asians were Hindu, some were Buddhist, and when Islam arrived it created a cultural rift bc of the many differences:

• Islam monotheistic, don’t like visual god representation, don’t follow hierarchal castes, and recognize only 1 sacred text (Quran, opposed to many from hindu)

• Political conflict between Muslims and Hindus shapes politics even today, and back then Muslim rulers found it hard to convert Hindu ppl to Islam (proselytize == actively seek converts) which is why most converts converted voluntarily, with the wives of Muslim merchants often converting to their husbands’ religion

• Islam in india similar to Christianity in Roman Empire: Both appealed to people who suffered under existing social structure

• Buddhism became a minority religion in its birthplace because of the effects of Early Muslim conquerors; Monk corruption and raids left Buddhism disorganized and brought converts to Islam.

• Islam did not change social structures in India, and most Muslims found the right classes to integrate themselves with.

• High Status in life correlated with better jobs, more education, not just a new religion. As a result, many lower-status folk who tried to convert for a better life failed.

• Muslims changed how they applied their teachings based on the culture of the conquered (spread) land.

• Ex: South Asia had women with less rights, so muslim women also had less rights.

• Concerts in South(east) Asia were able to accommodate Islam without losing their own traditions.

• Intellectual and cultural achievements were shared among muslims and Hindus; The “arabic numerals” actually originated from India but resulted from the sharing of ideas

• Cultural aspects merged, such as buildings, languages, and belief systems

• Islamic rulers in India made buildings that merged Islamic geometric patterns with details of Hindu art (Ex: Qutub Minar)

• Urdu, spoken by Muslims of South Asia, merged the grammatical pattern of Hindi with the vocabulary of Arabic/Farsi, and is now the official language. Of pakistan.

• Ex of Cultural Aspect: Bhakti movement, drew upon traditional teachings abt emotional importance AKA focusing on a strong attachment to one deity

• became popular bc it did not discriminate against women or low social status

• Bhaktis was hindu but similar to Sufi muslims (mystical movements, inner reflection emphasized, traditional rituals/beliefs rejected, helped to spread their respective religions)

• South Asia heavily influenced Southeast asia (Like China/its neighbors), through their trade spreading culture and goods (Hinduism/Buddhism spread with Buddhism becoming dominant in region, traded gold,metal goods, and textiles for spices)

• Control this region == control the valuable trade

• Sea Based: Srivijaya Empire: Hindu, Based on Sumatra, built strong navy and prospered by taxing ships traveling between China/India

• Sea Based: Majapahit Kingdom: Buddhist, controlled sea routes to maintain power, based on Java

• Land Based Kingdom: Sinhala dynasties in Sri Lanka, became center of Buddhist study (Buddhism was super embedded, even in the government of dynasties), eventually weakened by Indian invaders Monarchy/Priest conflict

• Land Based Empires: Khmer (Angkor) Empire, irrigation/drainage systems brought economic prosperity, capital==Angkor Thom that had Hindu cultural influences, but Buddhist culture added once rulers became Buddhist.

• Angkor Wat: a majestic and ornate Buddhist temple complex (This and the capital city show the powerful influence of Indian culture on region)

• Thais of Sukhonthai kingdom forced Khmers out in 1431.

• Islam spread everywhere in the Indian Ocean thanks to local converted merchants who hoped to get better trading deals with Islamic merchants. This paralleled Islam’s expansion everywhere else.

• Sufi’s did missionary work and won converts because of their tolerance for local faiths, being able to both be muslim and honor local deities.

1.4 Developments in the Americas

• New Civilizations, including the first large-scale civilization in North America developed after the decline of Olmecs/Chavin in Mesoamerica/Andes, with these new civilizations developing strong states, urban centers, and complex belief systems.

• Named bc of their starting location, known for building enormous earth mounds (ex: Cahokia)

• Rigid Class structure: Chief (Great Sun), Priests/Nobles, lower classes (farmers, hunters, merchants, artisans), enslaved people (prisoners of war)

• Men hunted while women farmed, and social standing was determined by mother’s side of family (matrilineal society)

• Civilization began to decline when people started leaving. Theories: Weather extremes harmed agriculture+economy, introduced diseases decimated population

• Both are civilizations in the dry southwest US, who developed ways to collect, store, and transport water efficiently, as well as make do with the lack of wood.

• Chaco used stones and clay to make homes, Mesa Verde built multi-story homes into sides of cliffs using sandstone bricks

• Both declined in late 13th century bc climate got drier

• City-state main form of government, consisting of a ruling king, city, and surrounding territory with majority men rulers.

• Most fights were for obtaining tribute and captives for human sacrifice, not for land.

• Wars were common and sometimes whole city-states were overthrown

• Mayan kings claimed divine descent and directed the state through elite scribes and priests.

• Commoners paid taxes and provided labor to the government, while citizens served in the military in times of war.

• Mayan civilization was divided into city-states with no central government, and rule passed from father to son with potential for overthrow.

• Innovative thinkers: developed writing, made rubber out of liquid, incorporated concept of zero

• Science/religion linked through astronomy, with precise observatories atop pyramids (Chichen Itza) to make a calendar, used for when to celebrate religious ceremonies

• Ceremonies meant to honor many deities, priests conducted these ceremonies by making offerings to the gods, often through human sacrifice

• Originally hunter-gatherers named Mexicas, founded a capital and conquered surrounding people to make a large civilization by the 14th century

• Capital city: Tenochtitlán, an island in the middle of a swampy lake, one of the largest cities in the world. It had a large pyramid in the middle consisting of stone.

• Used network of aqueducts to provide water for city

• Chinampas: floating gardens to increase space for food production

• Tribute system to ensure dominance: conquered people surrendered land, performed military service, and paid tribute in exchange for allowing local rulers to stay in positions as tribute collectors/ protection, establishing political dominance without direct control.

• City states grouped into provinces, with warriors moved to each province capital and Aztec officials set as a tribute collector for local oficials.

• Governemtn was “rule by religious leaders” (theocracy). Hierarchy: Emperor (great speaker), land-owning nobles, scribes/healers, craftspeople/traders, peasants/soldiers

• Emperor was political ruler + divine god representative

• Nobles made up majority of military leadership

• Pochteca: after craftspeople, traded luxury goods

• Worshipped hundreds of non-binary deities through rituals, feasts, sacrifices (to atone for the gods sacrificing themselves to create the world)

• Sacrifice possible political component: dramatically showing Aztec power

• Women very essential to society; took many kinds of jobs, wove important cloth demanded as tribute (as a result some husbands got 1+ wives)

• Decline: Low technology (== bad agriculture) and thirst for expansion and constant tribute generating resentment made its downfall inevitable, by the Spainards in 1519 + conquered tribes waiting for right moment to rebel.

• In the end, Disease, Spanish invasion, and Subjects rebelling caused downfall.

• A tribal leader named Pachacuti (transformer/shaker of the earth) conquered tribes living near Cuzco, Peru, combining them into the Incan Empire. Grandson (Huanya Capc) ruled empire.

• 4 Provinces, each w/ governer and bureaucracy.No tribute (unlike Aztec) but had mit’a system (mandatory public service)

• Men between 15-50 provided forms of labor (construction, agricultural)

• Inca rulers considered to be Inti (sun god) representative on Earth, and the Temple of the Sun in Cuzco formed core of Incan religion, being the center of the 2 critical elements.

• Inca means “people of the sun”

• 2 critical elements of Incan religion: Honoring of the sun and royal ancestor veneration

• Royal Ancestor Veneration: mummifying past rulers to “extend” their rule, leading new rulers with little inheritance, motivating empire expansion.

• “If I’m not getting anything with this ruler job, I’ll just expand and get new land”

• Priests very important: believed to determine will of gods in weird ways. They: diagnosed illness, predicted outcome of battles, solved crimes, determined what sacrifices to be made for which god.

• Serious events used human sacrifices but they were not as frequent as aztecs.

• Animism present in Inca religion: elements could have supernatural powers (huaca)

• Ex: river, mountain peak, stone, plant, bridge

• Achieved many things: quipu (sys of knotted strings used to record info), terrace systems (using waru waru - raised beds with channels to redirect rain to evoid erosion and store water during dry periods) , buildings (bridges, roads, Carpa Nan)

• Carpa Nan was a massive roadway system with 25k+ miles used by government + military

• Decline: Pizarro arrived during incan civil war after death of Huanya Capac. Reasons for decline: European disease, weakened army

• Either way, Pizarro’s forces conquiered core of empire

• One argument can be made that Mesoamerican cultures were influenced by the Olmec civilization, since many later cultures adopted their traditions (ex: snake-god becoming fundamental for both Mayans and Aztec, Olmec pottery depictions being seen in over civilizations’ poetry, traditions carried over from Olmecs like ritual sacrifices and pyramids)

• Others say that they all developed these same ideas independently. Which is super cool.

1.5 Developments in Africa

• Ibn Battuta, a scholar from morocco well-versed in shariah (islamic law), details his accounts on cultural forces at work in sub-saharan Africa during 14th century.

• Details that Islam’s growth increased connections among cultures of Asia, Africa, Southern euroipe

• African societies that adopt islam keep many of their traditions, but some choose to resist it with churches with labyrinths, reservoirs, and tunnels to defend against attacks by islamic forces.

• Bantu-speaking ppl migrations heavily shaped Sub-saharan Africa Development. In constrast to Asian/Euro societies of the time, communities formed kin-based networks where families governed themselves.

• Chief dealt with conflicts and neighboring groups, groups of chiefs decided how to solve the problems of a district, and a group of villages became a district.

• Increasing populations made kin-based networks harder to govern, increasing fighting as competition w/ neighbors increased. So kingdoms started forming.

• Hausa Kingdoms: Formed by seven states of the Hausa ethnic group, loose kinship ties, established city-states with a specific specialty

• Benefitted from trans-Saharan trade, a network of trading routes across Sahara desert.

• Bc states lacked central authority; they were frequently subject to outside domination. Later missionaries would introduce the region to islam in the 1300s.

• Exchange of West/East africa goods brought them wealth, political power, cultural diversity (due in part to spread of islam, where animism and Christianity were already practiced). There were 4 important ones.

• Ghana: Founded in 5th century, rached peak influence from 8th-11th centuries, sold gold/ivory to muslim traders for salt, copper, cloth, tools. King ruled a centralized government w/ nobles and iron-equipped army from the capital city of Koumbi Saleh.

• Mali: The most powerful trading society that rose in the place of Ghana. Muslim leader (Sundiata) used connections with other muslims to establish trade relationships that made Mali’s wealth grow, because of the thriving gold trade.

• Mansa Musa: Nephew of Sundiata, best known for pilgrimage to Mecca to show off wealth

• Zimbabwe: Most powerful East African kingdom from 12th-15th centuries, obtained name from Bantu word for “dwellings,” with stone instead of wood.Got rich with agriculture, grazing, trade, and gold, with taxes on gold transport increasing weath.

• Traded w/ coastal city-states (Mombasa, Kilwa, Mogadishu), tying Zimbabwe with Indian Ocean Trade (connected East Africa, Middle East, South Asia, East Asia)

• Swahili created by traders who blended Bantu and Arabic in East Africa.

• Rise/Decline: A big stone wall named the Great Zimbabwe surrounded the capital city, but overgrazing damaged the surrounding environment so much that residents abandoned it.

• Ethiopia: Kingdom of Axum developed, prospering by trading goods obtained from the Roman Empire, India, Arabia, and interior of Africa. Spread of islam religiously diversified the region.

• Christian-led kingdom emerged in Ethiopia in 12th century, expressing power through architecture (massive churches made of rock were made)

• Ethiopia Christianity developed independently, separated from Roman Catholic Church and Orthodox Church, combining traditional faith traditions (ancestor veneration/spirit belief) with Christianity

• Relied on clan/family identification (Kinship), age, and gender

• Younger people needed advice of elders but could do more work

• Men dominated activities that required a special skill (leather tanners, blacksmiths) while women engaged in agriculture, food gathering, domestic chores, raising children

• Prisoners of war, debtors, criminals were enslaved, with majority men working in agriculture and majority women working in households

• Many kinship societies had ppl who could own slaves and not land

• Owning large number of slaves increased social status

• Slavery 3 Forms: Chattel, Domestic, Debt Bondage

• Chattel: were legal property of owner, common in Americas 16th-19th centuries, permanent w/ children automatically enslaved, no rights

• Domestic: served as household workers, common in Classical greece and rome, and middle east, often permanent w/ children often automatically enslaved, some rights; some laws that prevented a master from selling a person

• Debt Bondage: enslaved due to a debt, common in East Africa before 15th century and Euro colonies, not permanent w children inheriting debt of parents, some rights: laws may have limited how severely a master could punish someone

• Indian Ocean slave trade started before Atlantic Ocean slave trade and resulted from a strong demand in middle East for enslaved workers

• Was in between East Africa and Middle east, Atlantic Ocean slave trade between West Africa and Americas

• Labor of zanj (enslaved East Africans) was valuable, they mounted series of revolts that became one of the most successful slave revolts in history (Zanj Rebellion)

• They and many arab workers, 15k strong, captured city of Basra for 10 yrs

• Music, visual arts, and stories carry additional significance to life in Africa because most traditional African religions included ancestor veneration, meaning song lyrics could provide means of communication with the spirit world.

• Visual arts also had religious purpose, with depictions of past rulers being used, which helped some Europeans increase their respect for West African cultures

• Griots/Griottes did storytelling with their encyclopedic knowledge of family lineages and lives/deeds of great leaders, as well as do music crap w/ drums and a 12 string harp (kora)

• Were held in high regard due to their ability to “sing your success or sing your downfall”, preserving people’s history and passing it on to future generations.

1.6 Developments in Europe

• Fall of Roman Empire from 5th-6th centuries brought the Middle Ages, with declining trade, intellectual life, and the dissolution of the Roman state into smaller kingdoms constantly at war with one another, forcing terms of peace between them.

• High Middle Ages: 100-1450, revived learning and trade in Europe

• Civilization relied on weak government based on decentralized political organization based on a system of exchanges for land for loyalty (feudalism), making people require protection from bandits, rival lords, invaders

• Mutual obligations: monarch granted land (fiefs) to lords who then owed service to them (vassal)

• Lord provided land to knights, who became vassals of the lord, fighting for them.

• Lord provided land/protection to peasants, who were then obligated to farm lord’s land and provide lord with crops/lifestock, and obey their orders

• Feudalism was based on agriculture and provided a few things for a few people. Wealth based on land, not cash bc of agriculture.

• Feudal system incorporated code of chivalry to resolve conflicts. Chivalry gave women a pedestal without any further importance, so they didnt have any rights.

• Large estates (manors) used the manorial system to provide economic self-sufficiency and defense, producing everything that the ppl needed so they never had to leave.

• Serfs were tied to the lord, needing to ask them for everything. Similar to slavery, children were born into serfdom. Like Incas, they paid tribute to their lords in form of crops or rarely coins.

• Agriculture increased efficiency as climate/tech slowly improved, paving the way for the three field system and coming in near the end of middle ages

• System involved 3 fields where one had food crops, one had soil fertilizing crops and one had unused-ness

• Tech developments: windmills, heavier plows with wheels/ligher plows for specific environments, all helped to promote population growth

• Monarchies grew more powerful by employing their own bureaucracy/military, working directly for the ruler. These ruled lands were starting to look like modern countries.

• In France, King Philip II developed a real bureaucracy that Philip IV used via Estates-General

• Watch Oversimplified to Learn more. TLDR: Council of representatives from 3 estates of French society, taxes were not evenly distributed

• Otto I crowned Holy Roman Emperor, successors survived the dispute of whether non-religious (secular) leader could appoint bishops, rather than the pope ( lay investiture controversy), and the power struggle w/ the papacy that it brought.

• Holy Roman Empire nearly destroyed by Thirty Years War, disbanded by Napoleon’s Time

• William the COnqueror successfully invaded England, fusing Norman folk (descendants of Vikings in Northern France) and Anglo-Saxons (ppl from England) to create modern English (nauseated) people

• He used royal sherrifs as administrative officials

• Nobles forced successors of William (King John) to sign Magma Carta (document saying king must respect certain rights of the noble before sentencing them, as well as be consulted upon issue of tax paid on knight who wanted to pay money instead of provide military service (scutage) ) bc they didnt like the power of monarchs.

• English Parliament formed later, brought more rights to nobles and not the public (similar to Estates General during French revolution, giving more rights to the clergy/nobility)

• House of Lords: nobles + church hierarchy, House of Commons: elected representatives of wealthy townspeople

• Hundred Years’ War: 1337-1453, England with their longbows and France fought, English only won port of Calais

• Results: Gunpowder weapons were used (showing spread of them from China) and monarch serving brought sense of unity to soldiers who spoke distinct langs

• Normans conquered Sicily, Muslims conquered Spain in 8th century, and Christians made many attempts (reconquista) to get it back, finally completed in 1492.

• Great Schism: Christian church divided into Roman Catholic (which continued to dominate most of Euro) and Orthodox (powerful from Greece to Russia)

• Europe divided into hundreds of political states, Church staff were only ppl in communities to be literate, with ppl coming to them in the manors to ask for reading/writing help

• Christinaity provided a shared identity for the people

• Education/Art established by Churches, so most thinkers/ writers/philosophers of middle ages were religious leaders, and most artwork focused on religiousness.

• Church had lot of swaying power in feudal system. Ex: bishops could do things to anger serfs of Lord

• Roman Catholic Church had hierarchy of regional religious leaders (bishops) who owed allegiance to supreme bishop in rome (pope)

• Monasteries remained part of economies of Western Europe, having same economic functions of agriculture and protection as other manors.

• Influence of Women: they were allowed to become nuns and exert their influence in Catholic Church monasteries

• Clergy had strong political influence and monasteries became very wealthy, driving corruption that would drive reformers (Martin luther) to make movements that shattered unity of Roman Catholic Church

• Europeans sought to reclaim region of Palestine in Middle East w/ spiritual significance to all 3 book-ish religions (Muslim, Jew, Chirstian), just like how they fought to drive Muslims out of Sicily/Spain

• With elder sons in family inheriting entire estate (primogeniture), younger sons wanted to get land and wealth through invasion of Middle East, which nobles used as a way to divert ambitions of these restless nobles/unemployed peasants

• Merchants Also wanted unfiltered access to trade routes in Middle East

• These 3 (religius, social, economic) pressures resulted in the Crusades!!

• The Roman Catholic Church used promises of religious freedoms to recruit crusaders, with support coming from Orthodox Christians as well.

• First Crusade: only clear victory for Christianity, Euros conquered Jerusalem but Muslims reconquered it later, brought cultural exchange as higher Middle Eastern standard of living increased demand for Middle Eastern goods

• Fourth Crusade: last major crusade never made it to holy land, crusaders ransacked Italian city of Zara and Constantinople, were stopped by Muslims in the Levant (area in Middle East)

• Growing long-distance commerce bc of interest in goods from other European Areas + far-flung ports

• Marco Polo: explored various parts of the world, surprising Europeans with customs of ppl he met, increasing curiosity about Asia (stimulating cartography/map making)

• Ex: he described how Mongols had multiple marriages, drank mare’s milk, burned coal to heat homes, bathed a ton

• Social pyramid changed as economic success started rivaling religious vocation/military service status (middle class - bourgeoisie - grew, consisting of shopkeepers, merchants, craftspeople, small landholders)

• Population growth, brought by advanced in agriculture, encouraged growth of towns/markets, growing demand for labor in Manors

• Along with spread of Black Death killing ⅓ of population, serfs had more bargaining power with lords.

• Little Ice Age: 5 century climate cooling, reduced agricultural productivity -> less trade and lesser growth and increased disease/unemployment -> social unrest, with jews taking the blame

• Jewish populations began growing in middle Ages, moving to northern Europe, where most were welcomed due to valuable business/trade experience

• Because of Roman Catholic policy against charging interest on other Christians, Jews took the opportunity to become moneylenders, contributing to economic growth of Europe

• Anti Semitism began spreading as Christians thought Jews were outsiders and untrustworthy.

• They were kicked from England, France, Spain, and Portugal and independent kingdoms, where they moved to Eastern Europe,

• Muslims also faced discrimination, kicked from kingdoms where they wouldn’t convert. Instead, they moved to southeastern Europe, where Muslim Ottoman Empire expanded its reach (from Turkey into Balkan countries), developing large Muslim populations.,

• These persecuted religions helped shape society bc they served as bridges between Christians and Muslim goods in trade.

• Women lost writes due to patriarchal writings/thinkings bc of agricultural-urban society change. Women did get to display skills in administration/leadership in religious orders, with women in Islamic societies tending to enjoy higher equality

• Brought by expansion of trade, growth of agricultural surplus, rising middle class, sparking great creativity in Europe. Period characterized by interset in Classical Greek/Roman works (art, literature, culture. Printing Press helped a lot.

• Printing Press: developed in 1439, allowed manuscripts to be mass-produced cheaply, fostering growth in literacy and spread of ideas

• Focus on individuals rather than god (Humanism) grew, as Humanists sought education/reform during this time period.

• Cultural changes brought rise of powerful monarchies, centralization of governments, birth of nationalism

• Church patronage supported renaissance in Italy/Spain, with wealthy families using money to support painters/ sculptors/architects

• Ex: Dante Alighieri used religious framework for The Divine Comedy, and reflected his independence from Roman Catholic Church with humanist ideals

• Many artists emphasized piety, but others emphasized human concerns in Northern Europe

• Ex: Geoffry Chaucer’s writings chose a vernacular, Middle English for work, while others were in Latin

• Tradings in furs, Fish, and grain connected peoples from Scandinavia to Mediterranian to Central Asia during late Middle Ages

• Center: Kievan Rus, whose adoption of Orthodox christianity made it maintain close cultural relationships with Byzantium than Roman Catholic Europe

• Mongols took this region later, making it develop even more separately from Europe

• Mongols made nobles collect taxes, which made nobles wealthy and cocky enough to resist Mongol rule, and under Ivan the Great, they became independent of Mongols, marking the beginning of Modern Russia.

1.7 Comparisons in the Period from 1200 to 1450

• States in core areas of civilization grew larger while smaller states declined, so building more centralized, powerful states spread, with the process of this spread varying from place to place.

• Song Dynasty in China continued long period of technological/cultural progress

• The Abbasid Caliphate in Middle East fragmented by invaders/shifts in trade, and it was followed by new Muslim states in Africa, Middle East, and Spain.

• Chola Kingdom + Vijayanagar Empire in South(east) Asia used trade to build strong states while Delhi sultanate in North India was land-based

• Rulers of Mali in Africa created empire bigger and more centrally administered than empire of Ghana before it.

• Aztecs formed tributary empire in Mesoamerica that relied on strong military, and Incas used mit’a system to support state-building. Americas lacked centralized states

• Europe had feudal ties that declined in importance as centralized states developed, which became more clear in Western Europe than Eastern.

• Japan became more decentralized and Feudal through shogunate.

• Used as a sense of unity to strengthen political control over a territory (Good example: islamic world)

• China and East Asia: Confucian belief system tied to civil service, with Song dynasty relying on its Confucial scholars for its bureaucracy, which was the strongest and most extensive across such a large territory

• Neo-confucianism in Korea and Japan allowed rulers to justify/consolidate political power, and hinduism in South(east) Asia allowed rulers to strengthen their states

• Europe: Sometimes church was part of state-building, other times it provided an alternative structure for society organization due to weakness of EUropean states for most of Middle Ages, and other times it became a rival power

• Spread of Major Religions -> influence of religion over many areas, and missionary activity/military conquests (Islamic Armies) helped to eradicate local religion practice in areas.

• In the case of South Asia, Hinduism remained predominant, creating lots of conflict/tolerance between Islam/Hindus

• Trade networks helped to spread religion as well

• Increased Trade brought increased exchanges of technologyu and innovation, bringing new technologies that would help to strengthen nations.

• Ex: Champa rice from Vietnam-China supported population growth which then supported China’s manufacturing, making the Song strong.

• More Examples: Paper manufacturing spread to Europe and helped make iuts people more literate, creating a focus on intellectual thought and learning which then brought advances in mathematics/medicine.

• Not all contact between Europe/Asia was peaceful, but it contributed to state-building in Europe.

• Was held back by the manorial system/serfdom but would inrase in speed/significance soon.

• Peace brought by Mongol dominance (Mongols were nomadic people from stepps of Central Asia) facilitated expansion of trade across Eurasia, increasing cross-cultural interactions and transfers.

• Turkish people also increased their dominance with separate empires unlike united empire of Mongols

• Ex: Seljuk/Ottoman Turks became dominant forces in Mediterranean, another Turkish group established empire in persia

• Role of Nomads would diminish as they were replaced by orgnaized groups of merchants and trading companies

• Cultures varied in patriarchy views (most emphasized power of men) and social oprganization remained patriarchal.

• Christian Women in Europe and Jainist/Buddhist religious women had opportunities for leadership and learning opposed to China and its foot binding.

Unit 2: Networks of Exchange from 1200-1450

2.1 The Silk Roads

• Silk road revived in 8th/9th centuries, and it was essential to interregional trade in 14th-15th centuries, with demand for goods increasing in Europe/Africa.

• Chinese/Persian/Indian textile/porcelain production increased

• Paper Money + Safer cavarans managed increasing trade

• Crusades helped expand trade networks, and demand for everyone’ stuff increased global trade. (China wanted Euro gold/silver and Euro wanted silk/tea/rhubarb)

• Silk Roads declined after fall of Roman/Han empires, but re-emerged from the Abbasid Empire’s upbringing (second golden age) w/ arab merchants reviving land + sea routes.

• China had compasses, paper, and gunpowder. They exported porcelain, tea, and silk. China imported cotton, stones, pomegranates, dates, horses, grapes as these appealed to upper class

• Mongols had greatest impact on Silk Road: by conquering China/Abbasids, they could unify parts of trade controlled by differnet rulers into a single rule, under the control of an authority that respected traders and enforced laws.

• They established new trade channels between Asia/MiddleEast/Africa/Europe

• Improved roads and punished bandits

• Transporation Tech: Travelling together in Caravans and designing new saddles for camels helped increase safety and load capacity that camels could carry.

• Naval Transport: In Han Dy nasty, Chinese developed magnetic compass, rudder, and junk to control sea-based trade routes in South China Sea.

• Compass/Rudder improved navigation/ship control

• Junk: similar to Southwest Asaian Dhow w/ multiple sails and a compartment divided hull, making ship stronger. It was also longer.

• Growth brought prospering Cities and Oases that were located along the routes. Cities such as Kashgar, located at crossing of north/south Silk Road routes, were useful for travelers in order to get water and food.

• Prospered bc it was located near a river, bringing water.

• Samarkand was another center of trading goods and cultural exchange, with remains of many religions and many artisans.

• 100 mile-apart inns (caravanserai) constructed for trader/camel resting (camels could only travel 100 miles before needing water)

• New Commercial Innovations: Flying cash developed in China, allowed trader to deposit paper money in one place and withdraw it in another, inspired the banking houses in European countries

• At a banking house a person could show a document saying they were legally obligated to be paid a set amount of money (bill of exchange)

• Innovations encourages/supported trade by providing convenience

• Crusades made Europeans want to acquire luxury goods from Asia, resulting in the formation of the cultural alliance (Hanseatic League) that controlled trade, monopolized in specific goods, and protected against pirates.

• Lasted until mid-17th century when governments could protect their merchants.

• Increasing Demand for luxury goods brought increased production -> increased supply of luxury goods. Ex: Iron/Steel manufacturing expanded in China, motivating Proto- industrialization.

2.2 Mongol Empire and Modern World

• Known more for their bloodshed and atrocities than their conquests and sparking of a period of interregional connection/exchange/

• Mongols consisted of multiple clans of pastoral nomads, herding animals and hunting/foraging for food. Harsh environment of Asian steppes shaped culture.

• Located north of Gobi Desert in East Asia

• Surrounded by other tribes and coveted the wealth of tribes/kingdoms closer to Silk Roads, giving them ez access to luxury goods

• Culture involved non-gender based skill requirements (become horse rider) and valued courage above all

• Formed key friendships, defeated neighboring groups, and focused on building power at young age.

• Ruthless and valued loyalty: killed his own stepbrother and appointed non-family members to positions over family members

• Elected khan of Mongolian kingdom at a Mongol chieftain meeting (kuriltai)

• Attacked Jin Empire with ruthlessness (any resistance brutally killed), news of brutality made some empires surrender immediately, conquered Central Asian Kara Khitai Empire and Islamic Khwarazm Empire

• Mongol Soldiers shaped Khan’s empire: Strong , disciplined riders with pro archery, as well as super military tactics (messenger force to aid w/ communication, special units that mapped terrain, military strategies to outflank enemy, etc)

• First asked for surrender, killed aristocrats if not, and recruited ppl with skills (craftworkers, miners, etc) for Mongol Empire while others used as laborers for the war effort (carrying looted goods, being “fodder” in front lines)

• Innovated from conquered peoples, incorporating the ideas of conquered into the military. Also had a “pony express” to communicate w/ the vast empire.

• Brought Peace (Pax Mongolica) through facilitating construction, protecting trade, tolerating religions, etc.

• To unify empire he tried making a captured scribe adapt theUyghur alphabet to represent Mongol although this failed.

• Genghis Khan’s 3 grandsons expanded empire w/ new khanates expanding into Asia and Europe. New people were absorbed into its economy and networks of exchange.

• The son of Khan’s Oldest son (batu) led 100k strong army into network-of-city-states- Russia, This “golden horde” army conquered and demanded tribute from kingdoms.

• Also tarnished good reputation of peace brought by Mongols when golden horde conquered Christian Region (russia)

• Defeated King Henry of Silesia, Hungarian knights,but stopped due to Genghis death, losing interest in conquering Western Europe

• Allowing Russia’s rulers to keep ruling generated anti-Mongol coalition that was able to defeat Golden horde and weaken mongol influence.

• Mongol Effect on Russia: Russia suffered devastation and death from attacks but began to recover after defeat of Golden horde as invasions prompted russian princes to improve military and centralize leadership fo region.

• Mongol effect on Russia: Rule under mongols severed russia’s ties with Europe, creating a distinct Russian culture.

• Another grandson of Genghis (Hulegu) led Mongols into Abbasid territories to the southwest, but were stopped by Mamluks under leadership of Baibars and Christian Crusaders, viewing the Mongols as a Threat

• Hulegu’s Kingdom (Il-Khanate) stretched from Byzantium to Oxus River, Persians served as ministers and officials bc Mongols got max tax collection

• After converting to islam, Hulegu and Mongols in Il-Khanate suppoorted Christian/Jewish genocide.

• Other Grandson (Kublai Khan) spent 1235-1271 trying to conquer Song dynasty and finally defeated the Chinese 11 years after gaining title of Great Khan, erstablishing the Yuan dynasty.

• Changed destroyed Capital (Zhongdu) to Dadu

• Because of religious tolerance and other reforms he was liked among Chinese. He brought prosperity to China bc of cultural exchanges, improved trade

• Mongol Women had independent lives, taking care of families and tending to animal flocks. They also rode horses, were able to remarry and divorce.

• Mongols eventually lost power in China because of their alienation from Chinese peoples (dismantling civil service exam, hiring foreigners). After failing invasions in regions around China, the White Lotus Society began organizing a revolt against Yuan

• 1368: Zhu Yuanzhang led revolt that overthrew Yang, established Ming Dynasty (1368 - 1644)

• This defeat in China paralleled a decline in power everywhere else, shrinking the empire. Golden Horde lost territory, Central Asian territories conquered by Tamerlane.

• Brutally conquered the largest continuous land empire in history, revitalized interregional trade between Asia/MiddleEast/Africa/Europe during Pax Mongolica

• Built roads, guarded trade routes, promoted interregional cultural exchange (Islamic scientific knowledge went to China, paper from China made renaissance possible w/ the printing press), also helped to transmit diseases through conquests

• Were able to maintain power for so long bc of understanding of centralized power, which was then adapted by kingdoms/states of Europe, Asia

• Fighting techniques ended Europe’s use of knights in armour due to speed/surprise of Mongols

• Era of walls ended bc walls were useless against Mongol’s siege, with the cannon being a Mongol invension (using Chinese gunpowder, muslim flamethrowers, European bell-casting techniques)

2.3 Exchange in the indian Ocean

• Location: South Asia located in center of indian Ocean making it perfect for trade in Indian Ocean Basin

• Most causes are similar to the expansion of overland routes, but ocean travel/knowledge were also prevalent in the expansion of exchange.

• Expansion of Islam connected more cities than indian Ocean trade had, with traders in East Africa, East/Southeast Asia, South Asia and Muslim Persians/Arabs being seafarers.

• West Coast Indian Cities (calicut, Cambay) became thriving centers of trade

• Calicut: Important exchanging city for merchants to exchange goods from West/East.

• Specialized Products: India known for high-quality fabrics (cotton), high carbon steel, tanned leather, artisan-crafted stonework, pepper, Malaysia/Indonesia known as Spice islands bc of nutmeg, cinnamon, cloves, cardamom

• More!! Slaves, ivory, gold from Swahili coastal cities of Mombasa, Mogadishu, Sofala

• Silk, porcelain from China (hence where “fine china” gets its name), horses, figs, and dates from Southwest Asia.

• Slave trade in Indian Ocean Basin: sold from west/central africa to buyers in North Africa, Middle East, india, many transported to islands, reached peak in 18th-19th centuries

• Indian ocean Slave trade: preserved African culture (words, musical styles, and customs found in oman, india, etc) because slaves more likely to provide forced labor in seaports, work as sailors or soldiers, and live in towns/cities, having opportunities to develop Communities.

• Monsoon Wind knowledge instrumental for Indian Ocean Trade: timing voyages carefully required, as merchants waitied for months at a time for favorable winds

• New Maratime Tech for navigasting Indian winds: lateen sails (triangular sails maybe invented by Arabs used to easily catch winds from diff directions) and stern rudder (invented by chinese sailors for more stability and maneuverability)

• Also: Dhows used by Arab/Indians dominated, and Astrolabe to determine distance from equator used

• Trade facilitated rapid spread of sailing tech likecompasses and stuff

• By taxing the ships that went through, the muslim city state of Malacca (melaka) was able to get super powerful, able to expand it to Sumatra and southern malay Peninsula.

• Sultanage ended after Portuguese Invasion (they wanted to tcontrol the flowing trade) but they were not as lucky

• Diasporic Communities formed as a result of merchants interacting with surrounding cultures while waiting for the monsoon Winds, introducing their own cultural traditions

• Brought Islam to Souther Asia through intermarriage (Women took religion of their spouse, and merchants married in these lands)

• Settlement of people away from their lands: Disaspora

• Increased demand created increased trade, with producers finding new ways to keep up with demand (some let their govrenments intervene)

• Ex: Rajput kingdom of Gujarat became intertwined with trade EastWest, with revenue being worth more than some EUropean states.

• Indian Ocean Trade brought thriving city-states in African East Coast (Swahili/”coaster”, referring to inhabitants of commercial centers, city states) who used trade (Zanj coast sold ivory, gold, slaves, exotic goods fr Chinese Porcelain, Indian cotton, ironwork)

• Architecture of City-states show the wealth that trade brought them. Many mosques/wealthy merchants’ homes made of stone/coral at height of trade.

• Travels of Muslim Admiral Zheng He reflect the transfer of knowledge, culture, technology, commerce, and religion. These transfers werent always met with grace.

• He voyaged to Indonesia, Ceylon, Arabia, East coast of Africa in one of seven voyages to showcase Chinese might and recieve tribute from encountered ppl

• Returned with greater understanding of the world and with new exotic treasuers, new market for chinese goods, and thirst for uimmigration to these ports.

• Conflicts generated: voyages thought to be too expensive, scholars worried abt China’s social order with the interaction between different cultures

• Zhu Gaozhi (Successor of Yongle) ended Zheng He’s travels bc too expensive and made making ships w/ 2 masts illegal, helping to stop pirate activites off coast of China/Asia.

2.4 Trans-Saharan Trade Routes

• Despite some Nomadic exceptions, arid conditions of Sahara made living/trade inhospitable, until arrival of Muslim Merchants in 7th/8th centuries, and Mail empire takeover of area in 1200s.

• Using Caravans and trading gold, ivory, hides, slaves for salt, cloth, paper, and horses made trade lively

• Oases make human settlement possible in the 3.6 million sq. mile Sahara bc of access to water, which humans dig or find naturally.

• Muslim Merchants used camels because they could withstand Sahara Climate, so they phased out horses and donkeys for trade.

• Also had differing camel saddles to use.: South Arabians had saddle on back of hump for comfort, North Arabians had saddle on hump for visibility during batltes, Somali saddle could hold the most weight and was most important.

• Caravans had lots of camels that held lots of provisions necessary to reach next oasis.Trade routes put ppl in Sub-Saharan Africa in touch with more cultures and trading partners

• Trans-Sharan Trade; Popular at end of 8th century, Gold most precious and traded from West African merchants, as well as ivoy and salt, in exchange for salt, textiles, horses

• Trade brought wealth and spread islam to societies of West Africa (Ghana, Mali)

• Mali Emerged as replacement for Ghana when it weakened bc of wars with neighbors.

• With gold trade + taxing all trade entering West Africa, it became prosperous. Cities of Timbuktu and Gao had most wealth and became centers of Muslim Life/Learning

• Rulers now had to manage these expanding empires more bc of the growth of trade/wealth.

• Ex: Need to establish currency system, protect trade routes/ currency making areas (they used military forces w/ horses and iron weapons)

• Expansion brought more ppl into Empire’s economy/trade networks.

• Sundiata (Lion Prince) was legendary: Father’s death let rebel groups capture throne and spare Sundiata bc crippled, he didnt let his disability stop him and became such a feared warrior that his enemies exiled him, which made him stronger, allowing him to defeat enemeies and reclaim throne in 1235.

• Story made him loved, governing made him respected bc he was good, with his steady leadership over the gold trade bringing Mali much wealth.

• Mansa Musa: devout Muslim, brought fame to region through his famous extravagant pilgrimage to Mecca, known more for religious leadership rather than political/economic acumen

• Pilgrimage made him deeper Muslim, establishing religious schools in Mali cities and rewarding those who studied someplace else. His reign deepened Mali’s support of Islam.

• Mali kingdom Decline: Songhai Kingdom took Mali’s place as Africa Powerhouse, Mansa Musa’s death started decline while Songhai became larger and richer, while maintaining the economic presense that Mansa Musa brought.

2.5 Cultural Consequences of Connectivity

• Most of the relative freedom that the exchange of goods, people, and ideas were able to have was due to the Mongol Empire’s protection and regulation of traders and routes.

• Religious spread led to either unification of people/justification of a kingdom’s rule or a merging of cultural traditions, as well as an influence on the literary and artistic cultures of areas.

• Buddhism: Integrated itself with Chinese (Song Dynasty) culture through Chan buddhism (See unit 1).

• Japan/Korea also adpoted Buddhism/Confucionaism and Neo-Confucianism (Origins: Tang Dynasty), with it becoming Korea’s main ideology

• Hinduism/Buddhism integrated itself through unification in Southeast Asia. Main Ex: Sea-based Srivijaya Empire was Hindu Kingdom, Majapahit Kingdom was so Buddhist that monks advised government, and similar Sinhala dynasties became centres of buddhist study

• Merging of Both Hinduism/Buddhism shown by Khmer Empire through its royal monuments; Hindu sculptures/artwork everywhere and later Buddhist ones added when rulers became Buddhist

• Islam Influences are in the Chart →

• Increased Trade brought exchanges of science/technology, through translations of Greek works, and techniques of other countries (papermaking from China)

• Agricultural knowledge expansion led to grow in population, cities, industries, and production.

• Marco polo describes the city of Hangzhou as emphasis of urbanization supported by trade, as it was the center of culture/trade and the home of writers .

• Grew and prospered as did other cities of its era (Novgorod, Timbuktu, Calicut)

• Samarkand/Kashgar also grew and thrived on the trade routes, being known as centers of Islamic scholarship, markets, source of freshwater

• Growth of Cities: Political stability, less invasions, increased commerce, reliable transportation, plentiful labor supply, increased agricultural output

• Declineof Cities: Political instability/invasions, disease, decline of agricultural output

• Shown by Kashgar, bc of nomadic invasions/Tamerlane, and Constantinople bc of Crusader armies and bubonic plague, falling to Ottomans in 1453.

• Crusaders brought new knowledge abt world beyond Europe because of their interactions with byzantine/Islamic cultures, bringing new trade and disease (Black Death)

• Black Death brought decreased economic productivity, drastically reducedc populations, and change of feudal system due to lack of working ppl

• New Ideas from beyond Western Europe contributed to the Renaissance/ secularism

• Due to exchange networks + paper/printing technology, Travelers were able to emerge and spread word about the world beyond.

• Marco Polo: Italian Native who visited Kublai Khan and told skeptical Europe about China’s wonders and prosperity. Wrote about urbanization, and as a merchant his views were trade-related.

• Ibn Battuta: Muslim Scholar from morocco travelling to mainly Muslim lands, had a POV as a devout Muslim and journeys mostly meant for learning about islam.

• Margery Kempe: English mystic, was a middle-class medieval woman and book was first autobiography in english.

2.6 Environmental Consequences of Connectivity

• Disease was the most dramatic environmental effect of increased commerce, as trade routes would spread this disease to Central Asia, China, india, Persia, Egypt, and Europe

• Introduction of new crops in foreign environments had impact on land use, population growth, and distribution, with some people finding ways to abundantly produce while others environmentally degraded.

• Champa rice most important, as its Hindu influenced nature, super strongness allowed it to grow China’s population and support it.

• Was also able to make max use of land as it could grow where once land was thought unusable. As ppl migrated to these rice-growing areas, cities grew.

• Introduction of Bananas to Sub-saharan Africa by Indonesian seafarers spiked population, allowed Bantu ppl to migrate to new places, as well as making farmers increase land for cultivation, growing population.

• Caliphs brought cotton, sugar, citrus crops to lands beyond Arabian peninsula, with markets of cities (Samarkand) introducing thse new foods

• Demand for sugar became so high for EUropeans that it would contribute to slave trade in 1500s

• Increases in Pop. -> Demand for Resources -> overgrazing in Great Zimbabwe leading to abandonment of city, Deforestation causing soil erosion in Feudal Europe, reducing agricultural production.

• Little Ice Age also contributed to decrease. Mayans fell because of environmental degradation.

• Mongol conquests helped to spread Bubonic Plague from Southern China to Central Asia, to Southeast Asia and Europe. Caravanserai may have contributed to spread of disease due to Animals/humans sharing confinement, and fleas on animals carrying it.

• Effect on Europe: Black death decimated populations (⅓ gone), led to changes in the relationship between workers and owners due to lack of workers (labor more valuable, workers could ask for more)

• Changes laid foundations for economic changes along with decline of Feudalism

• Effect on Africa/China/Central Asia: More death, with South Asia/Sub-saharan Africa not having many deaths due to fewer trading ports

• Trade correlated with spread of black death!

2.7 Comparison of Economic Exchange

• Silk Roads in Gobi Desert/Mountain Passes in China/Central Asia to Southwest Asia/Europe had prominent luxury good trading

• Monsoon-influenced Indian Ocean w/ East Asia and South(east/west) Asia exchanged goods too heavy to transport on land

• Trans-saharan trade routes from north Africa/Mediterranean Basin - West/East Africa had lively salt (from North Africa) to gold (from kingdoms south of Sahara) trade

• Origins: Trade routes emerged waay before CE, and 1200-1450 trade routes built on these existing trade routes, with expanding kindgoms/empires creating expanding trade

• Trade routes relied on stability of established states, as they could assure their merchants that routes/merchants would be safe. Stable polities == support of tech upgrades

• Overall Purpose: exchange what was present for things that were wanted (prmarily economic, but there were a lot more things exchanged than just products)

• Ex: Diplomats/Missionaries traveled trade routes for negotiations and obtaining converts, exchanging their ways of life as well as economic goods.

• Exchange networks gave rise to the cities that held the network together.

• Also brought Centralization, with trading cities using their wealth to keep routes/cities safe.

• Ex: Malacca used wealth from taxed ships to build a navy, that required centralized planning.

• Plus, desire for centralized currency that could speed up transactions/ allow merchants to measure value of products

• Different goods exchanged, nature of transport per route (Sea/land), technologies inspires, and religions spread

• Unique currencies, commercial practices (silk used to be currency, SouthEast Asia used tin ingots, etc)

• Gold/metal coins would later became norm, and the invention of flying cash by Chinese made commerce less bulky and established the predecessor of banks/extending credit.

• Rising Demand for goods -> Increase in faster production efforts, with new business practices and proto-industrialization (done by China) emerging.

• Production increase in order to meet demands (textiles/porcelain in China, spices in South(east) Asia) ->Increase in volume of overseas good exchange, as larger ships and improved maritime tech were needed

• Growing Demand brought growing need for labor in many forms: free peasant farmers, craft workers/artisans, enslaved workers, forced workers to pay debts

• Kinship ties corrdinated large-scale projects, as they called for thousands of organized laborers.

• Social Structures didnt change much and most societies were still patriarchal, but women (for ex: in Mongol societies opposed to Afro-Eurasia) had more power and influence, as they were often top advisors to Khan and could refuse traditions.

• Europe: Women were farmers/artisans, Southaeast Asia: women knew marketplace as representatives of powerful families

• Far fewer opportunities for them as opposed to them in other majhor regions.

• Networks of Exchange brought steep population declines in the form of diseases spread by merchants, diplomats, missionaries transferring it along trade routes. Caused so many deaths in Europe and China

• Cultural Diffusion: Cities (Canton, Samarkand, Timbuktu, Cario, Venice) experienced this due to changes in trade networks

• Environmental Strain: due to political instability asnd increased agriculture, causing soil erosion from deforestation or overgrazing, led to migration of growing populations to other areas.

Unit 3: Land-Based Empires

3.1 European, East Asian, Gunpowder Empires Expand

• Gunpowder empire == large multiethnic states in Southwest/Central/South Asia that used firearms: Russia, Ottoman, Safavid, Mughal

• These empires tended to be militaristic but had artistic/architectural legacies

• Expansion: Qing Empire did, experience several invasions. Europe expanded, and it involved transoceanic connections with the Americas (Unit 4)

• Armed Trade was common, and companies were always mobilized (readyt for attack)

• End of 1400s saw the Gutenberg printing press, 100 years war. Counties in Europe became more powerful and wealthy after the Middle Ages w/ explorations launched and colonies being established

• The expansion was bc of the desire of certain leaders to control taxes, the army, and religion to centralize power. Bureaucracies and the power of middle class increased while churches/lords suffered.

• Able to trade/exchange services with cultures farther east/west than Europe while remaining tightly linked to Europe (Capital located there). Influenced by Europe (Viking Invasions) as much as Mongols (their occupation)

• Ivan IV (The Terrible) sought to expand Russia farther East into Khanates of Kazan, Astrakhan, and Siberia. Used gunpowder for much of it.

• Expanded into Volga Sea, giving the ability to trade directly with Persia/Ottoman without Crimean Tartar intervention, via the Caspian Sea

• After his reign expansion continued, with missionaries following the conquests, converting many defeated tribes to Eastern Orthodox Faith while some shamans continued their influence.

• Ming Dynasty: Overthrew Mongol-created Yuan Dynasty and managed to stabilize East Asia, Overthrown by Manchu from Manchuria to form Qing Dynasty

• Portuguese/Europeans aimed to integrate into Asian trade network during Ming Era

• Ming expanded size of China w/ lands from mongolia/Central Asia, but Mongol forces took them back. So chinese leaders used great wall, which they expanded, for protection.

• Kangxi: Ruled over Qing Dynasty, expanded into Mongolia/Taiwan/Central Asia, enforced protectorate over Tibet that extends to CHina’s policy today.

• Qianlong: Qing poet/ruler, made military campains and annexation of lands west of China (Xinjang, caused mass killings there) and Tibet and Nepalese. Also tried Burma/Vietnam invasions but were costly and failed.

• Burma/Vietnam invasions emptied treasury, so Qing dynasty sold trading privileges to European powers (limited toGuangzhou). Britain wanted more privileges, Qianlong said to kys

• Later reign resulted in corruption of bureaucracy (high taxes imposed) leading to the White Lotus Rebellion which failed.

• Ottoman, Safavid, Mughal: Decended from Turkic nomads, spoke Turkic language, took advantage of power vacuums left from Mongol Khanate breakups, relied on Gunpowder weapons

• Succes gained from weakness of other regions, allowing them to replace and expand their power.

• Tamerlane: Mongol-Turkic Ruler, made invasions into Central Asia/Middle East, Persia, India using nomadic invader army from Eurasia. Ghazi Ideal emerged from Eurasian steppes.

• Ghazi Ideal: nomadic culture blended with willingness to serve as Islamic holy fighter. Served as a warrior’s life model, and was very much like Gunpowder Empire ppl.

• Conquests had much bloodshed that resulted in new Dynasties (Ottoman, Sufavid, Mughal) and new learning/arts (he championed literature and wrote his own memoirs) (architecture in Samarkand reflects this)

• Invasisons showed significance of gunpowder, being a government dependent upon military/use of heavy artillery. But without a stable political structure the empire’s economy crumbled., and empire fell apart later except for Mughal area.

• His rule emphasized the Mongol vs. Islamic forces that would constantly figbht w/ the rise and fall of the Gunpowder empires.

• Largest Gunpowder Empire, lasted until WW1, founded by Osman Dynasty, extended to Modern-day turkey and Balkan areas of Europe.

• Mehmed II (The Conqueror): Took over Constantinople w/ artillery and made it a prosperous muslim capital (city controlled waterway linking Agean/Black Seas), strenghted Ottoman navy and made Venice give tributary tax

• City of Instanbul became center of Islam after decline of Mamluks

• Suleiman I: Peak Ottoman Empire, conquerred Hungary and (almost) Austria (Scared europe), Rhodes in Greece, Tripoli in Africa.

• Ottomans would later experience transformation due to internal/external pressures, period of reform, and defeat/dissolution in 1922.

• Established by Ismail who conquered all of Iran at 14/15, based on Sufism, lacked navy or natural defenses b ut land-based military and leadership was strong.

• Shah Abbas I: peak Safavid, relied on Europe for weaponry and weapon advice for troops, used Shi’a Islam as unifying force and denied legitimacy to any Sunni (created hostility with Sunni Islam Ottoman Empire)

• Conflicts w/ Ottomans/Safavids: Religious (Sunni vs. Shi’a) and also over control over land trade routes

• Women: Rarelyu mentioned and restricted in their movements (traditional) but had access to rights by Islamic law, allowed to participate in society.

• Founded by Decendant of Tamurlane (Babur) during India disarray, completed conquests in Norhtern India under Mughal name, forming central government similar to Suleiman. Increedinly wealthy due to trade

• Ex: Architectural accomplishments show wealth/sophisitication of Mughal

• Akbar: Babur Grandson, Peak Mughal Empire, known for religious tolernace and flourishing ovewrseas trade (textiles, tropical foods, spices, precious stones exchanged for gold/silver, done by merchant castes)

• Castes (jatis) divided Hindu Structure: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Sudras, achoots /Dalits/untouchables, structure served as basis of educational opportunities for Indian society

• Declined as Western Europe grew in strength ecnomically, militarily (sea power). Also bc they didnt modernize, leaving even Russia powerful enough to survive.

• Decline of Ottomans: European force defeated Ottomans at Battle of Lepanto after death of Suleiman. His death brought weak sultans who succumed to “harem politics” (wives/ concubines used charm to promote their own children, bringing powerful women)

• Failed Siege of Vienna, Greece Independence, British/French involvement in Ottoman territories, Russian expansion in 19th century

• Safavid Decline: Weakened economy due to shahs after Abbas who used military spending/lavish lifestyles/falling revenues. Rebellion by Sunni Pashtuns sacked Isfahan and leader (Mahmud) declared himself new Shah of Persia, with Safavids barely clinging to power through centralization and tax collection.

• Ottoman/Rusian seized territories bc of Weakened Safavids

• Eventually replaced by Zang Dynasty in 1760.

• Mughal Decline: Aurangzeb (Shah Jahan’s Son) wanted to increase empire that was weakened by corruption and lack of military innovation. Also wanted to prioritize Muslims and remove all Hindu influence. Trained empire treasury w/ southern expansion, caused unstoppable riots/rebellions by oppressed religions

• Frequent revolts among Hindu/Islamic princes, his death brough instability, allowed French/British to take more economic power in India, with british nailing them in 19th century.

3.2 Empires: Administrations

• England and France able to form strong monarchies by centralizing power (tax collection), army, and religion. Other places used diff authority methods, with rulesr of empires developing more methods to maintain control over all regions.

• Temples built by Inca, Paying elite a salary in Japan, Forcefully establishing a captive governmental bureaucracy in Ottoman (devshirme)

• Divine Right of kings: right to rule for a king given by god, common in middle ages + King James in England believed so.

• Tudors of England relied on officials to maintain peace in counties of england by settling legal matters and carrying out laws (Justices of the peace, kinda like police?), with their rights/power increasing as feudal lord power weakened as Tudor rule continued.

• Justices of the Peace were another way to legitimatize monarch authority

• Parliament also controlled monarch power (Ex: English Bill of Rights that assured individuals civil liberties)

• In France: Monarchy was absolute: controlled solely by King. As Henry IV listened to Jean Bodin’s advocations for absolute power, Louis XII and his minister Cardinal Richelieu continued this centralization of power through Intendants.

• Intendants: Royal officials sent to execute orders of central goevrnment (also named tax farmers)

• Louis XIV (Sun King) wanted to hold absolute power/expand France, combining lawmaking and justice system in himself, keeping nobles close at Versailles. By refusing to share power he and his successors would weaken French government.

• Similar to Emperor Kangxi of the Qing in the way that they promoted study of sciences, ruled during golden age of empire, ruled during childhood, etc.

• Social pyramid: Boyars (Landowners) , Merchants, Peasants (engaged in Serfdom bc of increasing debts).

• Serfs: Peasants who received plot of land/protection from noble in exchange for the land’s agricultural profits. Little personal freedom and were chained to land.

• Boyars weakened after tensions with ruler of Ivan IV (his expansionist policies), who moved them to moscow to keep eye on them (LIKE LOUIS XIV)

• Oprichnina: Fiercely loyal Paramilitary force drawn from merchants/bureaucrats established by Ivan IV to control boyars more.

• Peter the Great: Led russia after death of Ivan, which caused Romanov Dynasty to take control and create 3 main groups w/ conflicting desires as a result of turmoil.

• Boyars: wanted power, Church: wanted to conserve traditions, Members of Tsar Royal Family

• To get Power, Peter defeated his half sister, disbanded her Boyar army (Strelsy), participated in church affairs (which is why hes known as Dewfender of orthodoxy), and reformed govenrment through creation of provinces

• Used devshirme: forcing Christian boys to serve in Ottoman government, to staff military and government.

• Similar to slavery: both considered tribute owed to empire after conquest, and with Islamic law forbidding enslavement of “people of the book” they were taken from their families forcibly.

• Boys were taught politics, art, military, recieved high education. Some became Jannisaries (elite forces in ottoman Army), others became administrators of new conquered territories. Were fiercely loyal despite being “slaves of the state.”

• To Erase Mongol influence (Yuan), Ming reintroduced civil cervice exam, established national school system and bureaucracy. Qing’s bureaucracy became corrupt (heavy taxes) so military stepped in harshly to maintain authority.

• Japan: Shogun (military leader) ruled, but daimyo (landowner aristocrats) conflict with their samurai armies, desire for more land, and power to rule absolutely broke Japan into many states. Gunpowder weapons helped 3 powerful Daiymo rise.

• Samurai paid nicely, and economic power of them increased.

• 1) Oda Nobunaga w/ Portuguese muskets, took over Kyoto and surrounding daimyos to submit, later assasinated.

• 2) Toyotomi hideyoshi, successor of Oda, continued expansion until japan unification complete and death shifted power to city of Edo (tokyo)

• 3) Tokugawa Ieyasu, took power in Edo, became shogun w/ his successors continuing to rule Japan into Period of Great Peace

• Tokugawa Shogunate: reorganized government to centralize power over a feudal system. Divided Japan into 250 hans (territories) each with daimyo who were kept in check with forced family hostage system, keeping them under control of Shogunate

• Mughal Empire: Akbar established efficient government and laws, with capable men all over Central Asia who heard abt his army exploits flocking to serve him, helping to create a strong, centra;ized govenrment + ciovil service

• Zamindars: Paid govenrmeent officials in charge of specific duties, later given land instead of salaries w/ their pay coming from ⅓ of peasant tax in land. Zamindars would build personal armies with these money.

• European governments built structures (Versaille Palace in France), used idea of divine right of monarchy to consolidate and legitimize their authority, with governments in other parts of the world using similar patterns.

• St. Petersburg: New capital of Russia bc of its warm-water access and to keep eye on Boyars, Peter made it his own capital by making prisoners of war/Peasants work, making architects lay out everything nicely, to create European-like palace.

• Showed Peter’s admiration of Europe

• Askia the Great: successor of Sunni Ali, promoted Islam (Like Mansa Musa), made Songhai largest kingdom in West Africa, used Islam as unifying force in empire and legitimized ruled by supporting efficient bureaucracy.

• Shah Jahan: built Taj Mahal in Mughal India, with many other Mughal rulers beautifying Delhi/India with architectural accomplishments. Craftspeople/builders of mughal combined Islam art with local art. All this was to show power of rulers.

• Ottoman Achivements: Arts/Culture/Economy showed continuities unlike the changing govenrment/religion. Later used to legitimize rule of Ottomans (Ex: instanbul/Grand Bazaar)

• Istanbul expanded its beauty and borders (Ex: Topkapi Palace landmark, built by Mehmed II), with Suleiman I wanting to make more mosques, forts, and others.

• Istanbul was also center of arts/learning, with poets/scholars meeting across Asia to discuss works by Greek Writers

• French Stuff: Versailles Palace was political instrument, used to keep nobles in check and legitimize Louis XIV’s power.

• Raising Money was required to fund goals of imperial expansion and extend state power.

• Peter in russia established new state-owned industries to bring revenue in, but resorted to taxes/ “compelling workers to work in shipyards”, with the tax on land being replaced by a tax on people (heads), oppression peasants more.

• Encouragted private industries (metallurgy, woodwork, gunpowder, leather, paper, mining) and even brought Western European naval engineers.

• Ottomans levied taxes on peasants using tax farming: local officials/private tax collectors (tax farmers) collected tax, and grew wealthy/corupt from it, like the zamindars in mughal empire.

• This burden of taxes and military would contribute to economic decline of empire.

• Ming Dynasty/Ottoman dynasty made tax collection the responsibility of private citizens (wealthy families) who saw to the collection of land taxes in their area. Land taxes were most profitable, and taxes collected in the form og grains, silver, also salt, wine, etc.

• 1580: Extravagant imperial spending and repression of rebell;ions bankrupted the Ming

• Empires collected tribute to demand recognition of their power/authority, and were a sign of respect, submission, or allegiance. Ex: Korea being tributary state to China, Mexica geting heavy tribute form conquered folk, Songhai empire had tributary states

3.3 Empires and Belief Systems

• Religion served as a key factor in the expansion of empires due to its ability to unify people and justify leadership. However Christianity/Islam experienced several “splits” into separate factions leading to significant changes to history.

• Ex: king Henry IV converted to Catholicism, showing how monarchs were willing to aprach ruling with practicality rather than theology

• Ex: Political rivalries between Ottoman/Safavids were fueled by Sunni/Shi’a rivalries (different branches of Islam creating conflict), with Sikhism being a merging point for Islam and Hinduism

• Catholic Church faced many isues: corruption due to its influence and bureaucracy, and theological disagreements - which resulted in failed attempts to reform

• Ex: John Wycliffe/Lollards in England argued that prtiests were unnecessary for salvation, Huldrych Zwingli argued for a religion that followeed exact teachings and not later evolved traditions.

• Power of church suffered during Babylonian Captivity period (papacy located in France than Rome, giving French rulers greater influence over Church). Suffered further when it failed to stop the Black death.

• Martin Luther: Monk living in Holy Roman Empire, objected to the sale of church ofices (simony) and no-sin-punishments (indulgences). Put his charges (95 theses) to a church door.

• He argued that some church pratices violated biblical teachings, and advocated for “sola fide” (faith alone) for the basis of Salvation for Christians.

• Church reacted harshly to this (due to the money that these practices brought); Pope excommunicated Luther, some German Political leaders joined Luther’s side, causing a greater devide between Churhc and Holy Roman Empire

• Luther’s Ideas supported women having same acces to god as men and women having significant roles in family. Because protestants didnt hold convents, Protestant women didnt have opportunities to become leaders in institution unlike Catholic women.

• Luther was NOT a social/political revolutionary

• Calvinism: Formed by John calvin when he broke w/ Catholic Church, reformed religious community in Switzerland. Worked by having elect (ppl “predestined” to go to heaven) run church building-based communities, governed by church elders.

• Calvin’s followers were named Huguenots, encouraged to work hard and reinvest their profits as God favored obedience through hard work. Ppl’s prosperity gave them their social status.

• Spinoffs of Calvinism: Reformed Church of Scotland (John Knox) and Puritans in England (who wanted to purify England of Catholic influence)

• Anglicanism: Last of the 3 major figures of Reformation, led by King Henry VIII to free Rome of pope control, made because pope refused to let him marry another woman

• Charles V spent his time defending integrity of Holy Roman Empire. Similar to Charles, peter the Great asserted authority over Othodox Chhurch as it was originally used to unify Russian ppl/Tsars, but now Peter abolished position of head of Church (patriarch)

• Establishd “Holy Synod” in the place of the patriarch, composing of Clergymen led by a secular official answering to Tsar.

• Reforms not welcomed by peasants andOld believers.

• All made in an efort to combat Protestant reformation, and were all successful in keeping Catholicism predominant in Western Europe, with later colonies of European powers adopting the religion of their oppressors:

• Increased usage of Inquisition (root out/punish nonbelievers, in use since 12th century and even involved torture)

• Had Jesuits (religious order founded by Ignatius of loyola) who also opposed Protestanism and undertook missionary activity in Spanish Empire, japan, india

• Had Council of Trent, who concentrated on reaffirming rituals improving education of rpiests and corected Church’s abuses.

• Inability to stop Lutheranism made Charles V abdicate, leaving his son (Philip II) to take catholic crusade to Netherlands and rule its 17 provinces, up until he tried to conquer and convert England, where his Spanish Armada was defeated.

• Conflict betweehn Lutherans and Holy Roman Empire created Peace of Augsburg (Each german state can choose wheter ruler would be Catholic or Lutheran, forcing citizens to practice state religion or move)

• France: Catholics and Hugeunots fought until King Henry IV tried unifying country by becoming Protestant->Catholic and issuing Edict of Nantes (allowing Hugeonts to practice their faith, providing religious toleration in France). Louis XIV revoked this.

• Because of revoking, French skilled craftsmen left france taking knowledge away from France and harming economy.

• Thirty Years War: Conflict between Catholics and Protestants, econmic catastrophe created in Europe,war resulted from escalation of conflict within holy Roman Empire.

• Most destruction caused by troops being allowed to loot as part of compensation

• War led to widepsread famine, starvation, and disease, and the Peace of Westphalia (alloowed each area of Holy Roman Empire to choose Roman Catholicism, Lutheranism, or Calvinism.)

• Effects of Peace: gave countries more autonomy and made them dewvelop new things (Prussia developed stronger military to protect itseulf due to the destruction caused, woud later influence EUro politics in 20th century)

• Ottomans: Siege of Constantinople transformed region from Byzantine-controlled Eastern Orthodox to Ottoman controlled and Islam dominated, with laws being replaced by Sharia (Islamic Legal System dealing with all aspects of life)

• Safavids: Used Shi’a Islam as unifying force and weren’t tolerant to other religions (Sunni’s were denied legitimacy) (Sticking to Shi’a caused much conflict with Ottomans)

• Mughals: Were tolerant with all religions bc of Akbar, who gave money/land to Hindus, Muslims, Catholic Church, and Skhism (Developed from hinduism, maybe influenced by Islam mysticism/Sufism, believed in rights of other faiths to exist)

• Gave Hindus government positions and married hindu wives and exempted them from Jizya (tax on non-muslims) in an effort to Ease Hindu/Muslim tensions

• Encouraged learning, art, literature, failed to prohibit child marriages/ sati (widows killed themselves with their dead husbands), died being unable to convert Hindus/Muslims to syncretic faith of Din-i Ilahi (divine faith)

• Spread of trends in Renaissance ideas gave popularity to scientific thinking, as it represented a thinking based on reason than faith in a period of religious schisms.

• Empiricism: Developed by Francis Bacon and insisted on collecting data to back up a hypothesis, used to challenge traditional ideas and replace them with ideas backed by evidence

• Sharing of ideas between leading scholars, even during religious wars (Establishment of Royal Acade,y opf Science in France/England also ) helped to advance scientific thinking, leading to the world being shown order and rationality.

• This scientific thinking gave way to the enlightenment.

3.4 Comparison in Land-Based Empires

• Building Empires, esxpanding them with conquered lands, and incorporating policies to solidify and legitimize their rule was a major part of 1450-1750s. However conquered lands didnt completely assimilate into their conquerors, helping to shape a blended culture.

• Not all empires could maintain their authority (Gunpowder Empires declining due to competition with European Trading companies and conflicts with heirs by harem politics), as weak leadership and failure to innovate were chief culprits.

• Connetion: Religious schism divided Muslims and hindus in Mughal India, Sunni Ottomans and Shi’a Safavids were divided and set the stage for Iran/Iraq conflict

• All Empires relied ongunpowder weapons, and the fierceness of Aztec/incan warriors allowed intimadion of their neighboring territories.

• Soldiers: had elite deviisions used to solidiy control over territories (Ex: Ottoman Sultan had Jannisaries and Safavid shah had Ghulams)

• Both were recruited from minority religions/groups within empires, with this system of taking ppl known as a “blood tax” (devshirme in Ottomans), also happened in Aztec civilization through the collection of enslaved as tribute

• Warfare: common among even strong militaries (Ottoman/Safavid terirotial claims along border and conflicts of religion and resources created War)

• Ex: Morocco invaded Songhai empire, sacking the capital of Gao and ending the Empire.

• Ming/Manchu had civil service exam to obtain bureaucratic members, Ottomans had devshirme system to get loyal civil servants, Safavids used class of bureaucrats obtained from Persian population “men of the pen”

• More! Songhai’s “mansa” (sultan) used scholarly class educated in schools of Timbuktu to obtain bureaucrats, while Incas organized their empire into federal province system instead, with loyal nobles overseeing this political strucutre.

• Even more! Aztec were not as bureaucratic/centralized, creating a tributary empire with little direct control over territory, using force/fear/intimidation to maintain control instead

• Taxation was necessary to support military and bureaucracy, and they differed from land-based empires:

• Mughals had appointed tax officials (zamindars) to collect from peasant class based on land/production

• Ottomans appointed “tax farmers” to pay a fixed sumfor an area to government and recoup it by collecting money/goods from residents of the area.

• Aztecs used yearly offerings or tributes from surrounding areas, which included local products or people.

• Failture to control paper money counterfeiting (and hyperinflation) led Ming to change to hard currency taxing (n the form of rice, silver coins)

• Ruling over regions with many ethnicities,m religions, tribal ties, while beneficial to economic/political atmosphere, was chjallenging. So rulers used religion, art, monumnetal architecture to legitimize rule. Syncretic attempts failed (Akbar)

• Ex: Religion (Islamic empires used references to “caliph” for Rulers) (European moinarchs used claim of Christian god to legitimize ruling) (Converting to Islam by rulers/nobles in Songhai to provide religious/legal structure)

• Ex: Art (Portraits of Qing EMperors and officials) (Miniature Paintings in Ottoman Empire) (European rulers supported artists financially)

• Ex: Architecture (Mausolea such as Taj Mahal in mughal Empire) (European Palaces)

Unit 4: Transoceanic Interconnections from c. 1450 to 1750

4.1 Technological Innovations

• Exploring the Ocean was important due to Demographic pressures on Europeans (not all ppl could find jobs, primogeniture laws only allowed eldest sons to inherit land), and technological advancements (magnetic compass, caravel ship, cartography) helped.

• Europe always had connections with Asia; 16th century prompted more Europeans to traverse Indian Ocean to find wealth + converts + trade, Middle East was a competitor.

• Portuguese Ports were being sabotaged by Middle Easterns

• Colombus search for new route to india due to Omani-European Rivalry

• Trade Sparked by Columbus’s voyages, as it made connections between ppl across Atlantic Ocean (Afro-Eurasia and Americas): Sugar/Tobacco/Rum from Americas, Slaves from Africa, Silk/Spices/Rhubarb from Asia, trade created Maritime Empires

• Most Trade carried out by men but most business carried out with women in Southeast Asia, as handling of markets and money-making was traditional.

• Combining classical Greek knowledge with new Islamic/Asian-developed knowledge (obtained from trade-induced cultural interactions, ex: Al-Andalus) allowed Western European countries to develop their naval tech.

• Dev. of Naval Tech headed by Prince Henry the Navigator in Portugal, by strongly supporting exploration, financing expeditions to help explore areas before other European powers

• Safety of sailing improved by new knowledge; Newton’s gravitational discovery increased knowledge of tides, improvements in cartography (astronomical chart: had constellations) helped for navigation before compass was invented

• New Equipment: Astrolabe, New Chinese-developed rudder, compass, lateen sail (triangle-shaped), new ship types, all helped to make sailing easier

• Compass oldest, most familiar. Lateen sail used in Indian Ocean, significantly affected medieval navigation/trade as it allowed sailors to travel into large bodies of water expanding trade routes

• Incredibly rapid Expansion of Exploration/Trade followed because of this diffusion of maritime tech, as Polynesia was the ONLY part of the Afro-Eurasia world not affect by these advances.

• Gunpowder became used in naval areas, Islam spread rapidly w/ its interactions with diff cultures bringing extensive trade/technologies, and navigational techniques spreading to all parts of the world (Peter the Great observed Western Europe’s tech)

4.2 Exploration: Causes and Events

• Explorers were interested in converting others to Christianity, Economic incentives (controlling trade meant greater profits; Italian cities had monopoly on European Trade w/ Asia) and political reasons

• Columbus’s journeys helped spark interest in discovery, with English/French and later Dutch supporting later explorations

• Europeans wanted to expand authority and control of resources, and conq uests gave opportunities to bring great material wealth, spread christianity, and expand before another empire could (rivalries)

• States were Centrally involved in maritime exploration, economically and religiously, as religion was integrated heavily into state governments.

• Wealth was measured by amt of gold/silver owned by Europeans; countries tried their hardest to maximize amt of gold/silver coming into the country and minimize amount exiting country (known as Mercantilism, required heavy government involvement)

• Portugal had the greatest ties between interest of explorers and interest of states, allowing them to lead the way in European exploration and maritime innovations

• Leading exploration in Africa/India was: Prince Henry the Navigator, Bartholomew DIaz, Vasco Da Gama

• Henry was first monarch to sponsor seafaring expeditions, looking for a sea route to the East/African Gold. he prompted the switch from overland slave trade to sea slave trade.

• Bartholomew sailed to the Cape of Good Hope, waters he wasn’t familiar with, returned home to prevent mutinies

• Vasco Da Gama sailed farther, claimed territoy that would be instrumental in expanding Portugal’s trade into Indian Ocean

• Afonso de Albuquerque: Set up factory at Malacca after beating Arab traders

• Portuguese traders arrived at China, with their superior ships able to win control of African/Indian coasts from Europeans.

• Initially little impact on Chinese society, but Missionaries later came to convert the Chinese. Jesuits came too (Ex: Matteo Ricci and Adam Schall von Bell) and tried to convert Chinese elite w/ science but were seen as barbaric.

• Portuguese constructed fortsto establish monopoly over spice trade and license all vehicles trading between Malacca and Hormuz, giving Portugal a global trading post empire based on small outposts rather than control of large territories.

• Succeeded in global trade but its small size wasn’t able to enforce such a large trading empire, with corruption spreading among merchants and government officials and latrer Dutch/English rivals challenging their trade.

• Dutch captured Malacca and tried monopolizing spice trade. English saw this and focused on India, driving Portugal from South Asia

• Portugal also tried trading with Japan and getting some converts, but Japanese rulers outlaws Catholicism and expelled missionaries in 1600s.

• Spanish Ships: First to circumnavigate the globe (Ferdinand Magellan), with Spain annexing and conquering the lands discovered by Magellan’s fleet.

• Manila in Philippines became Spanish commercial center, attracting Chinese merchants. As a result of these occupations, many Filipinos became christians.

• European explorers “explored” to find riches. When they culdn’t they stopped. THis is evident with the Spanish (considered stopping in first two decades bc little value found) and English (who made little attempt to explore/settle for a century)

• Interest Rekindled when Spanish came into contact with Aztecs/Incas, who had riches that made exploration profitable. Plus enslavement of these native ppl could bring great crop yields.

• Silver from Western hemisphere would become a dominant force in the global economic system, as it was used for most global exchange. China became enthusiastic about silver consumption, silver transported from Americas to Europe with Spanish armed ships (galleons)

• French, English, and Dutch explorers, all rivals of Spain, looked for a northwest passage (passage that would lead to east Asia/Spice and luxury good trade)

• French started sponsoring expeditions in search of this passage, with one famous Jacques Cartier sailing and failing to find a route. But he claimed Canada for france.

• Samuel de Champlain and Cartier realized abt the valuable goods in the Americas, eliminating the need to go to Asia

• French trader (La Salle) claimed Great Lakes/Mississippi river Area for France

• French wanted gold, found fur/other resources instead in a trading post/town they named Quebec. Traders searched for furs, priests looked to convert natives to Christianity by building schools.

• Unlike Spanish or English (in East Coast), French didnt settle permanently, trading furs instead of demanding land, creating better relations with natives and growing their settlements slower.

• English Exploration: John Cabot sent to find Northwest passage, lands he claimed couldn’t be defended from Spanish until they managed to defeat ⅔ of their fleet, English claimed they were major naval power and began competition for american lands.

• Established colony in Virginia, built first successful English settlement of Jamestown, which would be part of US later. Spanish Florida/New Mexico were first colonies in present-day United States.

• Dutch Time: Henry Hudson sent to East coast to find passage, claimed Hudson River Valley and Manhattan, settled community on Manhattan named New Amsterdam (now New York City) which prospered bc it was near major river.

• New Amsterdam important to Dutch transatlantic trade as merchants brought furs from places as far as Canada, crops (tobacco) from Virginia, sending them to Netherlands in exchange for manufactured goods.

4.3 Columbian Exchange

• Native populations declined as a result of being overpowered by European powers, decimated by European diseases. They either died or had to submit to European rulers and religion.

• Columbian Exchange: Interactions between American, European, and African cultures, as Wester/Eastern hemispheres became linked in a new way.

• Had far-reaching effects; contributed to changing economy, influenced populations and biodiversity

• Disease responsible for majority of deaths; As Both hemispheres were isolated, native AMericans were never exposed to European diseases and could never develop immunity.

• Ex: Smallpox brought by Francisco Pizzaro and Hernán Cortés, Disease-carrying animals brought by colonists settling in Americas (Measles, Influenza, Malaria)

• Population fell by >50% just by diseases, with some lands losing up to 90% of og population.

• Crops and Livestock were exchanged in both directions; Americans knew nothing about livestock and consumed very little meat before integrating it into their diets with the European introduction of pigs, cows, and wheat, grapes.

• Horse: Brought by Europeans, transformed culture of AMerican Indians by allowing them to hunt buffalo efficient enough to have food surplus, giving them time to pursue art and spirituality, and also provide an edge in conflicts

• Population grew in Europe as they took Mesoamerican maize (corn), potatoes, tomatoes, beans, peppers, cacao, where ppl started to grow them.

• Enslaved Africans brought to America to work, who themselves brought okra and rice to the AMericas. Forced labor crops (tobacco and cacao) from Americas sold to Europe, Africa, Middle East

• Nutritious foods (Yams, Manoic) introduced to Africa helped grow population despite millions of Africans kidnapped for forced labor.

• Brazil was used for sugar cultivation by Portugal bc of climate and vast land. Workers decimated due to disease, so forced labor (enslaved ppl from Africa, mostly from Kongo Kingdom and Swahili coastal cities) was common

• Sugar’s popularity and profits increased transatlantic slave trade, with sugar production demanding so much African labor that decendants of laborers made up majority of modern Brazil population.

• 90% of slaves sold to Caribbean/South Africa, 6% to British North America, up until 1800s more Africans went to America than Europeans

• Sugar production was so efficient that they were known as engenhos (engines in Portuguese)

• Slaves lived in harsh conditions as the backbreaking labor, poor nutrition, lack of good shelter, disease, and tropical heat killed a lot of them.

• 5-10% of labor force lost per year in these engenhos

• Spanish switched from silver to cash crop cultivation (sugar/tobacco) after witnessing Portugal profits, as they are grown for sale rather than subsistence. Sugar overtook silver as main moneymaker for European Empires.

• Africans in America retained the culture from their maiden lands during the African Diaspora (dispersion of Africans out of Africa)

• Couldn’t retain languages while being forced away from communities and being sent on ships among captives from all across Western Africa, and some from across East Africa

• Most captives didn’t share common language, and this linguistic isolation made thm lose their languages after a generation. They combined their colonizer’s languages (English, Spanish, French, Portuguese) with parts of their lang to create “creole”

• Creole languages dominate Caribbean islands even today, with some remnants in Carolina and Georgia

• Music Brought by Africans (because they were used as a means of survival), with their specific rhyrthms and percussion being used influencing later styles (gospel, blues, jazz, rock and roll, hip-hop, rap, samba, reggae, country).

• By singing tunes from home, they could communicate with other Africans and endure long workdays. Also blended Christian music with their own songs (known as Negro Spirituals), and invented Banjo

• Africans brought knowledge of food, such as the gumbo. Their culture has had a profound/lasting impact on Americas life.

• Most changes resulted from Columbian Exchange

• Europeans used agricultural land more intensively than American indians, by cutting down trees to clear areas for agriculture (deforestation and soil depletion bc of farming)

• Europeans lived in denser communities, contriubitng to water resource strain and concentrated pollution areas.

4.4 Maritime Empires linking Regions

• New Maritime empires established by European nation exchange across the two hemispheres, fueled by political, religious, and economic rivalries.

• New Labor Systems formed in Americas: Indentured Servitude (servants contracted to work for specified amt of years in exchange for passage) and chattel slavery (individuals considered property to be bought and sold).

• Explorations brought Maritime empires, with the lands discovered being claimed and established as the basis of the empire.

• Regions of East/West Africa targeted by Europeans, and with the cooperation of local rulers, Portuguese and European traders set posts along African coasts to trade gunpowder and cannons in exchange for enslaved ppl in Africa.

• Gave Local Africa rulers military advantage, some grew wealthy from this selling (Kingdom of Dahomey)

• European powers (Portuguese exploers/traders/missionaries) went into African states (Kongo, benin kingdoms, artwork here displays European “intruders”), some contributing to African state growth (Astante Empire, kingdom of Kongo)

• Ex: Vasco invaded Swahili city states to take over their trade. Portuguese took over Kilwa, mombasa, etc with heavily armed ships and built fortress, sending hte region into a decline.

• Europeans were expanding trade but Japan was starting to restrict its networks, due to their impact on the native region (Christian missionaries converted many Japanese, and destroyed Buddhist shrines due to intolerance, prompting government to kick them out)

• By 1630s, Japan expelled nearly all foreigners and foreign influence, essentially locking down the country except for a small port for Dutch trading and continued Chinese trading through regional lords w/ access to sea.

• Ming Dynasty tried limiting foreign influence after Zheng He voyages in an attempt to undo influence of Mongol Yuan dynasty. Many of the limits on trade were reversed later, however.

• Ming destroyed dockyards, limited size of ships, reconstructed great wall, prohibited private foreign trade. To undo Yuan: brought back exam system, reemphasized importance of Confucianism

• Fueled by political, economic, and religious motives, rivalries shaped the expansion of empires, with competition for power being rampant on five continents (7 Year’s War between France and British resulting in british victory)

• British East India Company began trade relationship with Mughals, Portugal controlled Coastal trading port in Goa, and France controlled Pondicherry

• British Victory of 7 Year’s war drove French out of India, Portuguese driven out in mid-20th century

• British in India were originally focused on making a profit through trade, with companies such as East India Company establishing small ports similar to those established by other Euroipeans elsewhere.

• Limited by Mughal Influence, but by taking advantage of hindu/muslim tensions the EIC could expand and increase its political power through local treaties.

• European-trained Indian private forces (Sepoys) moved inland and later British forces would intervene militarilly and politically, controlling the continent.

• British established more posts in West Africa, limited by Asante Empire.

• These Trading posts would pave the way for globalization, as each post became an intersection of multiple points serving as a center for goods from many parts of the world.

• Europeans in America would drastically decrease the native Aztec/Inca population, and both empires would collapse due to Spanish Forces. In particular, Aztec defeated by Cortes and rebelling forces, and Inca defeated by Pizzaro.

• New Spain: colony established in Aztec Area by Spanish. Destroyed Tenochtitlan and replaced it with Mexico City.

• Pizzaro captured Atahualpa (Inca Ruler), holding him hostage in exchange for gold.

• Treaty of Tordesillas: Divided Americas between Spain and Portugal (Pope drew a line on a map saying things to East belong to portugal and rest belongs to Spain. - Brazil for Portugal, Americas for Spain)

• Spain explored other parts of North America besides Mesoamerica and South America, with Pedro Menendez de Aviles establishing a fort in St. Augustine (Florida).

• France and Britain fought for dominance in the Americas, with the British first siding with the powerful iroquois, Iroquois shifting sides (Great Peace of Montreal Treaty), and British driving French out of Canada during 7 year’s war

• Intensification of Trade + Influence of Europeans disrupted trade networks but business continued as usual, as merchants were used to paying taxes at controlled ports and were free to move elsewhere if fees were too high.

• Portugal, however, with its superior navy and military forces, were driven to profit from the Asia-Europe trade, creating armed trading posts along Indian Ocean trate routes

• Wanted to profit from porcelain, silk (China), cloth (India), agricultural goods (java), spices from many places

• Merchants continued as usual, paying fees where necessary.

• Thirst for Profit started with Columbus, as he tried to retrieve anything of value from Hispanola (now Haiti and Domunican republic). He brought indigenous peoples because gold was sparse.

• Encomienda System: Brutal Labor System Established by Spanish to get gold and other resources, encomenderos (landowners) compelled natives to work in exchange for food/shelter (similar to serfs in English Manorial system).

• Hacienda System: landowners made natives work with agricultural land - wheat, fruit, vegetables, sugar.

• Spanish crown granted land to conquistadors - mostly men who conquered lands. They have children with native women, UNLIKE BRITISH COLONIES.

• Silver in mexico/Peru immensely profitable in Spain, and by using mercury to separate silver from its ore increased silver mining profits. Zacetecas and Potosi became thriving centers of mining, and Spanish authorities used a coerced labor form of Mit’a system.

• Made individual spanish prospectors wealthy, strengthened Spanish economy through mercantalism (impose tariffs and establish colonies to increase government control) and the steady gold/silver stream

• By exporting more than it imported, a colonizing country could increase its wealth by the mercantalism system. Spanish did this to build up military and establish foreign trade.

• Europeans wanted sources of inexpensive labor in the Americas, and Portugal’s edge in naval tech allowed them to send fleets to Kingdom of the Kongo to get enslaved people, originally taking them back to Europe to be domestic servants.

• Slavery was already prominent in Africa itself, as society had integrated slavery as a status symbol: One could show wealth/power in a community just by the # of enslaved people owned.

• Arab merchants also seeked enslaved people during 600-1450 while traveling to Swahili coast, but the Atlantic Slave Trade wreaked the most havoc on African society.

• Africans were Chosen because: Labor was scarce and the already-decimated natives coerced to work would be able to escape due to familiarity with the land + social connections. Thus, while some coerced labor efforts had success, Africans still #1

• Plus, while there was indentured servitude of European laborers (mostly for tobacco growth) they weren’t used to this backbreaking agricultural labor + climate and were only required to work for 7 years, becoming free laborers after.

• Economic Incentives: Capturing Africans for slavery was violent bc African rulers saw the profits thatcould be made with enslaved selling, so they invaded other societies to get people, or just gave their lower-class members away.

• King Afonso of Kongo saw that slaves raids were controllable and had no intention of giving up his society’s elite to slavery or let Kongo be depopulated. He saw his authority undermined bc subjects could trade enslaved ppl for goods without his involvement. He lost control of trade when the Europeans arrived.

• Captive Journey: First taken to holding pens in West Africa (Barracoons - slave castles), where traders crammed them into cargo section of ship with little food/water/space.

• The “Middle Passage” was most difficult par; during middle of journey many africans would try rebelling, but most were crushed.

• Up to half of captives would die during journey, and 10-15% of all captives perished before reaching Americas.

• Demographic, Social, and Cultural changes bc of Expansion of Slavery: Exportation of slaves caused decline in African home country populations, status of ppl changed from free-enslaved creating social classes, disrupted family organization by separating families and having more men than women, encouraging polygyny.

• People with African roots in slavery-introduced regions have influenced the language and culture of their environments

• Mixing of ethnic groups created multiracial people (mestizos, mulattos)

• Indian Ocean Slave Trade: trade in Eastern Africa, sold to buyers in northern Africa, Middle East, India, paeked in 18th-19th centuries, most slaves going to America didnt come from here.

• Slaves from Indian Ocean trade more likely to work as sailors or soldiers or laborers in shipping industry/household servants

• Some could develop communities, work alongside free laboprers, and have certain rights in Islamic societies.

4.5 Maritime Empires Develop

• These empires changed commerce from small-scale trading to international with gold/silver. They used new economic models (joint-stock companies where investors bought shares in company to finance trade - East India Company)to increase trade.

• Silver, sugar, slavery all necesary in the development of mercantilist empires.

• Wealth measured by amt of gold/silver, and countries tried selling as much as posible while spending as little as possible to maximize gold/silver.

• Capital: Material wealth available to produce more wealth, accumulation of it grew as Entrepreneurs went into long-distance markets.

• Capital allowed laborers/investors to become consumers as lending money with high interest rates became common (despite church interjections)

• Was the transofmration to a trade-based economy using gold and silver, affected the world and was a result of dev. Of European colonies, opening of new oceanic trade routes, population growth, and inflation

• This high rate of inflation, caused by increased mining of gold/silver and pressure of increasing population is named the Price Revolution

• Joint-stock companies: Owned by shareholding investors and aided in rise of global economy. Limited liability (investor not responsible for companies’ debts) made investing safer.

• Driving force behind development of maritime empires as they encouraged expansion overseas with little risk to investors

• Dutch, English, and French all developed joint-stock companies and people could invest capital due to middle class having successful businesses. Examples: Dutch East India Company, East India Company

• Governemnt did most investing in Portugal, through grants to explorers

• Dutch were the commercial middlemen of Europe, having trade routes to Latin/North America, South Africa, indonesia, with their faster, lighter ships giving them an early trade advantage and letting them profit in Spice Islands/Southeast Asia with Dutch East India Company.

• Had stock exchange quite early, and their Bank (of Amsterdam) traded currency internationally. These profits let the Dutch and dutch people prosper.

• Prospering people: Dutch had highest standard of living with goods like diamonds passing through Dutch Traders’ hands.

• France/England fell victim to financial schemes, based on the sale of shares to investors and promises to pay them back, increasing price of shares, then blowing their money and bankrupting them, heavily damaging the economy.

• Triangular Trade resulted from Eurpean’s desire for enslaved workers in Americas + Portugal’s “discovery” of West Africa, making enslaved Africans part of this complex part of Atlantic trade. It involved a “triangle” system of goods, with sugar being main profit.

• Europe continued to try controlling trade routes on Indian Ocean despite trade over Atlantic Ocean becoming more significant; Portugal defeated Muslim/Venetian force over controlling trade, lost to Morofcan forces in Land battle.

• Victory bankrupted Morocco, which then sought to capture Songhai kingdom riches (another muslim kingdom!! bad!!), using firearms to win.

• Created new global circulation of goods, wealth, labor; Silver from Spanish colonies went to Asia, where they gave their cool things for it, where their cool things were eagerly bought in Atlantic markets.

• Patterns of trade maintained through monopolies by European rulers - they allowed certain merchants/governenment exclusive trade right, greatly increasing profits

• Ex: Spain monopolized domestic tobafcco market, with its profits making up ⅓ of total revenues.

• Improved shipping allowed merchants to increase volume of products as well as traditional regional markets flourishing too.

• Greatly weakened West African kingdoms (Kongo) by slowing population growth, causing violence with Trade competition, and making them dependent on European goods.

• Countries that conducted slave raids (Dahomey, Oyo) became richer by selling their captives for political gains (exchanging them for guns to invade rivals who didnt have guns to get more enslaved people makingthem richer)

• This weakening set the stage for later European imperialism as these countries were slow to develop complex societies due to these setbacks.

• Civilizations of West Africa in Ghana-Benin most affected bc most slaves came from here, and as more men slaves than women were taken, gender imbalances happened here, prompting a rise in polygyny (having more than 1 wife) and women taking men jobs

• Slave trade kinda caused later polpulation growth due to a diversified diet, with the columbian exchange introducing new crops to the continent that became staples (Maize, peanuts, manioc)

• Empires like Romans, Muslims, and Mongols either allowed conquered people’s traditions to exist or tried to slowly integrate their own. Maritime empires instead completely destroyed their traditions and social structures (Portuguese/Spanish)

• Political structures of Indigenous places replaced by Spanish/Portuguese administrations, and viceroys were appointed to act as representatives of Spanish crown, with audiencias also appointed to keep them in check

• Audiencias: Royal courts where Spanish settlers could appeal viceroys’ decisions

• Spanish didnt focus on colonial affairs in Americas because of slow communication/transport between Europe and AMericas, making direct control hard

• Culture was greatly lost by European influence, leading to a loss of firsthand accounts from indigenous peoples and creating bias from historical accounts from this period, as most were written by Spanish conquistadores/priests.

• Spanish/Portuguese made natives assimilate into their religions and language thats still present today, although indigenous languages thrive in certain regions.

• Creoles (born in America of Spanish descent) had political dominance in New Spain, advocating for peace from Spanish throne by 1750.

• Some areas resulted in syncretic belief systems, others had religious conflicts.

• African religions in americas were very syncretic, melding aspects of CHristianity with West African religious traditions. Examples are: Santería, Vodun, Candomblé

• Santería: “way of the saints,” Vodun: “spirit/deity”, Candomblé: “dance to honor the gods”

• Africans in United States paved the way for African AMerican church (hybrid of Christianity and African sprititrual traidtions)

• 10% of enslaved Africans practiced Islam and represented the first significant presenese of Islam in the Americas

• Missionary activity in Latin America done by Dominicans, Jesuits, Franciscans were incredibly successful as most Latin AMericans are Catholic Christian.

• Religious syncretism originated in Spanish colonies as well, with Catholic sants’ days that coincided with indigenous holidays were honored, and a cult in Mexico revolved around the Virgin of Guadalupe for her ability to perform Miracles.

• Afro-Eurasia had syncretic religion development, with Sufism helping to spread islam and maybe spark Sikhism (blend of Hindu/Islam). Akbar in Mughal India tried to unit Hindus/Muslims similar to Sikhism.

• Religion important in conflicts, evident with Safavid/Ottoman conflicts caused by divisions between Shi’a and Sunni muslims, as well as Catholocism/Protestantism and Anglicanism and Protestant sects.

• All drove immigration to North America to obtain freedom of worship.

4.6 Internal and External Challenges to State Power

• Social, political, economic groups resisted state expansion, with revolts occuring in empire itself or within colonies (Fronde Civil disturbances, Metacom’s War)

• Being kicked out of India, Portugal looked to Africa to build a colony, where they did many slave raids since 15th century. They befriended Nzinga, ruler of Ndongo, but alliance fell apart and, with the Dutch, Nzinga offered freedom to citizens of Matamba.

• Pressures on power came from within Russia, not outside (Portugal). Serf conditions in Russia hadn’t improved (unlike European Serfs) and wars weakened central government while increasing power of nobility.

• Nobles imposed harsh conditions on serfs, who had been oppressed for centuries (Mongols/Russian Princes collected tribute and taxes from peasants), creating more peasant debt and eventually making them lose their lands and become serfs.

• Serfs were helpful for Russia because they benefitted landlords by providing free labor, and kept peasants under control for government.They were practically enslaved.

• Institution of serfdom expanded as RUssian territory expanded, and Russia’s agricultural economy kept serfs tied to the land after the practice had ended (Ex: law in 1679 chained Russian serfs to the land while Elizabeth I in 1579 freed all serfs)

• Murs: village communes who also controlled small landholder peasants

• Skilled fighter peasants (Cossak Warrioers) lived near Black sea, many of which were runaways living in small groups influenced by neighboring nomadic Mongol decendants.

• Sometimes against Tsar, but could be hired as mercenaries for “Mother Russia” against Swedish, Tartar, Ottoman forces, and were thus important in Russian Expansion

• Yemelyan Pugachev: Began peasant rebellion against Catherine the Great, gathered group of peasants, people of diff ethnic groups, Cossaks but eventually lost to Russian forces. Catherine increased oppression of peasants bc of this.

• Mughal Empire fought against Maratha (Hindu warrior group), creating the Hindu Maratha Empire that effectively ended Mughal Rule of India.

• Spain had rebellions within its territories (Ex: Pueblo Revolt in New Mexico, where Pueblo and Apache tribes fought colonizers forcing religious conversions)

• England’s power in carribean grew stronger, defeating Spanish colonists, taking control of Jamaica, and creating tensions with Enslaved ppl in Carribean and former Spanish territories who wanted freedom (Maroon Wars)

• Maroons = Decendants of escaped african slaves who formed independent settlements (Ex: Queen Nanny, who united all Maroons)

• Slave revolts common in Americas. Ex: Gloucester County Rebellion (enslaved Africans and white indentured servants worked together to fight governor, buit were stopped)

• Ex: Metacom’s War was Final major effort of natives to drive British away, resulted in 12 towns being destroyed and English subjugating Wampanoag people. (MoheganPequot tribes sided with English)

• Within England, struggles for power persisted. Ex: Glorious Revolution: Catholic King James II’s policies enraged popuilace who invited Protestant William of Orange to invade England and become king, keeping English throne under Protestant rule forevermore.

• Effects of Glorious Revolution: Increased parliamentary power (they passed a law forbidding catholics ruling England) and created more religious tension, despite being a bloodless revolution.

4.7 Changing Social Hierarchies

• Social hierarchies transformed as societies faced rebellions. Ex: treatment of Jews showed majorities treating minority groups differently, with the Ottomans allowed Jews to escape European discrimination

• Distinctive social hierarchies formed in different civilizations, with nobles/royals/land owners/scholars/soildiers seeking power, merchants/artisans forming middle class, and serfs/poor people/peasants struggling to survive.

• Some policies created by some states that discriminated against some groups (Ex: Huguenots greatly persecuted, with many fleeing to European countries or colonies), and some states encouraged formation of elite classes.

• Ottoman social system built around warriors competing for positions in bureaucracy with ulama (scholars/experts in Islamic law). Jannisaires also became power-hungry.

• Viziers (strong advisors) gained influence as sultans became weaker, despite having considerable powers (Ex: Timar, where sultan granted land/tax revenue to favored ppl)

• Success of Ottomans attributed to religious tolerance: Under Mehmed II, the persecuted Jewish folk were invited to settle in Istanbul with many getting high positions and contributing to society. They lacked full equality, however:

• Only living in certain areas, had to pay jizya, and top positions were locked/reserved for muslims

• Women had the power of “harem politics” (reference to harem - residence where a man’s wives/concubines lived) where they could influence sultan to make their children heirs to throne.

• Ex; Roxelana, sold into slavery when young and married to Suleiman the Magnificent, with her son succeeding Suleiman.

• Her rise to power showed that it was possible for ppl to attain different social classes in thistime period.

• Merchants/Artisans formed small middle class, Peasants were below and poor due to tribute they had to pay to support Ottoman armies, and enslaved were below coming from many areas, including from Barbary Pirates

• Barbary Pirates: captured Europeans in mediterranean and sold them to sultan, with some of them being forced into servce in navy (impressed).

• Manchu people, culturally distinct from the people they ruled (like Mongols), ruled over China’s Qing Dynasty. They were less tolerant than Mongols, exerting their own culture as dominant by putting own ppl in top government positions.

• Kept some Chinese practices such as civil service exams and bureaucracy

• Han people experienced Qing intolerance (Ex: forced to adopt queue hairstyle of the manchu), driving conflict. Those who refused assimilation were harshly persecuted.

• Most who refused were executed by Han Chinese Defectors, who carried out Massacres against non-assimilators. Ex: Li Chendong did 3 seperate massacres, Liu Liangzuo massacred entire city population.

• First royalty (member of royal family), nobility/aristocracy (wealthy landowners who owned most land but made up little of population, Europe had laws recogtnizing nobles and giving them special rights), maintaining power through inheritance system.

• Nobility took active part in Government in Netherlands/England, with Dutch landowners providing support for government while England landowners controlled parliament.

• They had to deal with radical religious sects/middle class who kept growing.

• Nobles fought with royalty, middle class, priestly class, and common people for power, with a failed uprising prompting Louis XIV to prevent commoners/nobility from getting power.

• Gunpowder was instrumental in helping rulers control nobles and seize lands, as many believed they deserved absolute power (Louis XIV famously said “I am the state”, while Frederick of Prussia instead saw himself as “the first servant of the state”)

• Starting in 17th century role of Jews became more significant. Jews from Spain known as Sephardic Jews, those from Central/eastern Europe known as Ashkenazi Jews

• Jewish discrimination lessened due to scientific revolution and Enlightment. They could now move more freely and became important in commerce.

• Continuing Kievan Rus social structure of Boyars (noble landowners), merchants, and majority of peasants with gradual debts sinking to become serfs, bound to a Boyar’s land with little personal freedom in exchange for protection and land.

• Boyars and rulers had cnflict over power. Ex: Ivan IV’s expansionist policies drove Boyars in Novgorod to oppose and rebel against him, which he then stopped and took land away from, forcing them to move to Moscow for constant surveillance.

• With social structures drastically changing due to European arrival, slave labor, and disease, a new social hierarchy based on race/ancestry developed, as skin color became a signifier of power/status and racial/ethnic background defined social status.

• Casta System: Peninsulares at top (Born in Iberian Peninsula), Criollos (European decent born in AMericas), Castas (mixed race), Mestizos (mixed European/native), mulatoes (mixed European and African), zambos (mixed african and native), and African/native.

• Assigned status at birth, could only move up through intermarriage, lower classes had to pay higher taxes/tributes despite having less money.

4.8 Continuity and Change!!!

• Better technology brought new integrations of societies across the world. With religions merging or conflicting, new (cruel) labor systems being created and used today, and new economic systems made to exploit resources and generate wealth.

• Significant Change: Integration of Western Hemisphere into global trade using technology that made ocean travel easier: astronomical charts, astrolabe, compass, magnetic compass, lateen sail, carrack, caravel, fluyt

• Result of integration was Columbian Exchange: biological and cultural exchanges of beliefs, crops, animals, people, and diseases having a variety of effects:

• Changed what foods ppl grew and how they grew them, unleashed deadly diseases, caused massive forced migrations and new social structures

• Atlantic System developed bc of Columbian Exchange: trading network made up of Western Europe, Western Africa, and America regions, involved movement of goods/people among region.

• Prompted cultural change: religion spread and created syncretic belief systems

• Integration of Western Hemisphere within Global trading, resulting from European transoceanic voyages, created Maritime trading Empires who established trading ports everywhere, creating contact and conflict w/ existing merchant networks.

• Consequentially, Europeans came to dominate global trade at the expense of Arab, Indian, Chinese merchants, making considerable profits from transport of goods from one region to another

• Constrasting trading empires in Indian Ocean, European powers established empires in the Americas through colonies, with the integration of Europeans into global economy resulting from deposits of silver discovered in Spain colonies.

• Silver greatly desired in Asian markets, and shipments of silver to Asia became a regular occurrence of global trade.

• Mercantilist economic policies to provide steady streams of income were established to accumulate wealth from this expanding trade, with capitalism becoming dominant economic system from mercantilism in the world.

• Formation of joint-stock companies allowed investors to share the risks/rewards of global trade

• Helped expand middle class, provide large amounts of capital that would sustain and cause the Industrial Revolution, increase inflation due to increase of quantity of money (silver) in circulation

• European merchant activity allowed regional markets in Europe, Africa, and Asia to prosper, using this money to help pursue other programs to legitimize rule (funding art/authors)

• Demographic (populatin) shift resulted in Africa from Columbian exchange and Atlantic system because of Atlantic Slave trade intensification. With millions of african men enslaved and forced to work American cash crops, gender imbalances occured.

• Populations decreased because of foreced mass movement ofpeople in Africa, but later increased due to new introduced crops diversifying diets (manoic)

• Traditional labor systems continued (serfdom) and new ones were created because of Columbian Exchange, Atlantic System, and chattel slavery of Atlantic Slave trade. Ex: indentured servants from Europe, encomienda/hacienda systems of the Spanish, Inca mit’a system adopted, etc.

• New Social Structures created due to this coexisting of different peoples: Based on racial/ethnic identities with whites being on the top and natives/slaves on the bottom. Societal conflicts emerged due to these structures that would later cause revolutions.

Unit 5: Revolutions from 1750 to 1900

I: Enlightenment Revolutions in Americas/Europe

• British/French always enemies (Hundred Year’s War) and they fought even in the colonies established in north America. Ex: 7 Year’s War fought between French+Tribes and British resulting in british victory, expanding territory westward.

• British, now broke and feeling as if colonies did not help with the war burden, imposed unpopular laws. Charles Townshend and George Grenville imposed Revenue Act, Stamp Act, Tea Act, to raise funds for government. Caused great unrest because they were seen as economically unfair and politically unjust (no representation in Parliament).

• “No taxation without representation” cry aroused from here.

• Relations deteriorated when Boston Tea Party, with the Revolution officially starting in 1775 at Lexington/Concord.

• As colonists were born in/from England, many were skeptical about actually being independent. But Thomas Paine’s (influenced from Enlightenment) pamphlet Common Sense emphasized need to form a better government bc of the monarchy’s encroachment of American’s natural rights.

• Printing press, as it had been used in the Renaissance, Protestant Reformation, and Enlightenment, was also a powerful tool in the revolution.

• Declaration of Independence signed a few months after pamphlet was made.

• Americans were getting clapped but French decided to help (bc they were always enemies with British), sending ships and soldiers and weapons and money for the revolution. By cornering the British army with these ships and troops the British surrendered and America was independent omg. Bill of Rights, Constitution created and put into effect.

• Connect: American revolution caused by mercantilist policies imposed by British that drove colonists mad, as well as the Enlightenment inspiring revolution and inspiring the type of governance that would follow it.

• All the wars France was getting into had bankrupted the country, and with droughts destroying peasant harvests and nobility/clergy spending a crap ton, King had to raise taxes.

• So he named estates-general (governing body made up of representatives from 3 “estates”) to resolve issue, and even through the king ruled by divine right the poor financial situation had gotten too bad.

• 3 Estates made up social class of France: Clergy (priests, some were wealthy handsome were poor), Nobility (noble families), everyone else - 95% of pop. with little political power (middle class of france aka Bourgeoisie, peasant farmers, merchants)

• Nobility wanted more political power and greater freedoms (new constitution) for them, meanwhile 3rd estate wanted freedoms similar to colonists (American Revolution aa) and suggested for all estates to meet under one roof, but top court in Paris ruled in favor of nobility instead, meeting separately.

• In fear of not having anything for themselves in the new constitution, they made their own party (National Assembly), with the king being scared and forcing other estates to join them for new constitution. But peasants were restless, concerned at a chance of losing the reforms they wanted.

• Stormed Bastille, and started anarchy. Peasants started attacking nobility and feudal institutions.

• Based on the ideas of Enlightenment, Declaration of Independence, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, widely copied and distributed across Europe, furthered ideas of freedom, equality, and law through the emphasis of natural rights. Created by National Assembly, who did a lot of things.

• Abolished feudal system, declared freedom of worship that destabilized Catholic Church monopoly, established the nation-state as the source of political authority (became first modern nation)

• King moved to Paris so he wouldn’t interfere with revolutionary work.

• New Constitution ratified by NA (similar to US constitution but a constitutional monarchy instead of democracy), enraging those who wanted to remove monarchy and those who wanted to keep feudal structure.

• Through blood ties to the queen, Austrians and Prussians invaded to restore Monarchy, French held them back. New constitution made making the Convention, headed by the Jacobin Radicals, and they declared that France was a republic, imprisoning and beheading the King for terason.

• Compare and Contrast: American Revolution about colonial uprising against oppressive power - Independence Movement, while revolutionary through the spread of its ideas. French revolution: citizens rose up against country’s leadership - proper revolution, with new France being very different

• Committee of Public Safety (brutal enforcer of revolution) created due to worry of foreign threats that could destabilize revolution, led by Robespierre, beheaded tons of citizens. It controlled anarchy and built strong military, but Robespierre’s thirst for blood got him killed next, with a new 5-man government being created in his place: Directory.

• Bad at domestic policy, good at building military.

• Napoleon Bonaparte: Military general whose successes brought great reputation, which he used to overthrow Directory and declare himself as new leader (Consul).

• Reforms he made: Agriculture, infrastructure, public education, normalized church relations, added tolerance/stability with them.

• Napoleonic Code: brought equality to French (men) and made the Enlightenment ideas that supported revolution constitutional. Based on Roman law, rights of women/children were weak, but with modifications its still used today

• Effect of Code: Served as model for many other national codes, and was a huge step forward in recognition of basic rights and establishment of rules/law.

• Biggest Impact of Napoleon was his external conquests: Conquered Austria, Prussia, Spain, Portugal, Italy kingdoms, destroyed Holy Roman Empire and made German states. His increased power would be challenged by nationalistic uprisings

• Plus, lack of resources to sustain such a vast empire, and unrest in italy/ guerilla warfare in spain/Portugal, and conflicts with naval British.

• His thirst for power made him try conquering Russia, but they countered his tactics by burning the land and forcing a deadly retreat, decimating the empire and forcing him into exile.

• Members of overthrown countries (Prince von Metternich of Austria, Alexander I of RUssia, Duke of Wellington in Britan) met to discuss French affairs, but disagreements allowed Napoeleon to come back, take control, and be defeated (Waterloo) again, where he was later exiled to St. Helena, with the leaders having a Congress of Vienna meeting over what to do with French territories and resources.

• Congress decreed that a balance of power should be made to prevent another Napoleon: borders cut back, no military/economic punishments, added monarchy again in France, Spain, Holland, and Italian states.

• Essentially it erased the ideas of the revolution and Napoleon from EUrope and restore the royal order that had persisted previously.

• Inspired by French revolution ideas and success of AMerican revolution, as well as Europe chaos due to Napoleon’s conquests, they could try staging successful revolutions (despite unsuccessful attempts 2-3 centuries prior)

• Haiti: 90% of population enslaved exporting coffee, sugar, cocoa, indigo to Europe bc of France, who used mercantalist policies to grow its economy with haiti.

• Pierre Toussaint L’Ouverture: leader of violent, long, successful slave revolt which Napoleon failed to put down due to skilled slave fighters and yellow fever. They captured him but his lieutenant Jacques Dessalines took over, naming himself governor-general.

• Haiti became first independent nation in Latin America as a free republic in1804.

• South America:Venezuela (Spanish colony) refused to recognize the new monarchy established by Napoleon in SPain and instead remain loyal to original king, with Simon Boliviar using his travel (republican ideal) expertise to establish national congress.

• Congress declared independence from Spain, Civil War started by Royalists, Boliviar helped achieve fredom for Gran Colombia (Colombia, Ecuador, etc)

• Following decades would lead to new SOuth American govenrements established

• Argentina: Opportujnity for liberation due to French governer/Spanish crown conflict allowed a Jose de San Martin, a creole, to take command of argentinian armies, joining with Bernardo O’Higgins in Chile and taking revolution from Chile to Peru, meaning by 1820s a large chunk of South AMerica had declared independence.

• Brazil: King of Portugal (owner of Brazil) John VI fled to brazil bc Napoleon, came back when Napoleon defeated making his son in charge of Brazil, but his son (Pedro) considered Brazil home and declared its independence.

• After Pedro abdicated, (Pedro II) took over, reforming Brazilian society through abolishing slavery (done by his daughter Isabel) and making it major coffee exporter.

• Abolishing slavery made landowners mad so they revolted, establishing a republic

• Mexico: After French Revolution Miguel Hidalgo in 1810 led revolt against spanish rule, being a creole who sympathized with those abused under Spanish colonialism. He was executed as Spanish forces countarcted the revolt.

• Efforts continued by Jose Morelos, but landowning class turned against him when he wanted to redistribute land to the poor, geting executed too.

• Independence finally achieved in 1821 through Treaty of Cordoba (Spain recognized Spanish colonies as free and independent) when landowning class finally wanted to separate from Spain.

• Neocolonialism largely controlled Latin American independent countries who were largely controlled by outside ecojnomic/political interests. As significant trade increases brought increased wealth to landowning class, working class movements started

• Ex: Mexican Revolution protersted dictator Porfilio DIaz being a pawn for landowners, with Francisco Madero replacing him, getting overthrown in 1913, and then a new constitution created in 1917.

• Overall, culmination of independence from colonialpowers didnt always result in freedom for all (Ex: Slavery in US), but unlike US significant middle class/merchatns didnt emerge and many of revolution (Enlightenment) ideas influenced elite only.

• Reason 1: Catholic Church, as the hierarchy of church protected the status quo, being the largest landowner in Latin America

• Reason 2: Economies of Latin America dependent on Europe through participation in European mercantilism, as specialization of specific goods/ exclusive exports to Europe eliminated need for diversity, harming innovation

• Exceptions: Chile (diversified economy), Brazil, Argentina (instituted social reform, broadened economies for middle class). As a whole, notable changes werent made for majority of population bc of revolution in Latin America.

II: Industry and Imperialism

• The Industrial revolution, beginning in Britain, created technology that allowed for weaker countries to be taken over and also required large amounts of resources, which colonies helped to bring.As Americas free from Europe control, Africa was next.

• Britian first (Became most powerful), then Belgium, France, Germany, Japan, then US (eclipsing Britian’s power), with Britains social consequencing echo-ing across other industrialized countries.

• As early civilizations grew due to an agricultural revolution, a new dramatic agricultural increase allowed up to half of population to leave farms and join work in cities, contributing to the industrial revolution.

• Reason: new crops introduced from New World (Potatoes, corn, etc), new farming techniques (“enclosure” using fences allowed for private farming and gain.)

• Reason: New Technologies that helped efficiency and productivity (new seeding, plowing, reaping machines, chemical fertilizers developed, Urbanization (growth of cities) )

• Cities developed in high-resource areas, where Industrialization could take place. (Coal, Iron, Water)

• Industrial revolution brought end to Domestic System: inefficient, highly labor intensive arrangement with one person at a time doing the work. Revolution brought flying shuttle (sped up weaving), spinning jenny (could spin vast amts of thread) and Eli Witney’s Cotton Gin, allowing massive amts of cotton to be processed and exported, and industries to be taken out of homes and into centralised areas.

• Industrialization spread to different industries: Steam engine (James Watt, used for transport and generating power for industry), steamship (Robert Fulton) and steam-powered locomotive (George Stephenson)

• These steam-powered transports would help toward empire building and global trade, with their implementation being rapid due to high coal reserves.

• Impact: THe inventions made by Industrial Revolution have greatly impacted the world for the beter, bringing technological progress that we still use today.

• More! Telegraph, Telephone, Lightbulb, Internal Combustion Engine, Radio. Plus, advances in medicine/science with vaccinations developed and Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection made by Charles Darwin.

• Compare and Contrast: Scientific Rev. and Industrial Rev. sought to change world, one used discovering/learning for natural world, other used such for real-world applications, knowledge spread and improvements made, with piggybacking of ideas prevalent.

• By using systems of interchangeable parts to make repair of machines easier, and using assembly lines that made each worker assemble 1 part of a finished product, factory profit increased at the social cost of the lack of diversity in the workplace.

• Plus, overworking, underpaying, and harmful ocnditions made the thousands of workers comprised of even women and children, with their own responsibilities, involved in the efficient and inexpensive production system.

• Changes to life: Many social commentators and novelists captured the despair of factory workers, whose lives were monotonous with the same products all year round (no variation unlike farming) and constant exposure to harm w/ pollution and dangerous machines (instead of sunshine and fresh air with farming)

• Changes to Social: Despite lower wages women/children joined workforce, and companies dominated the lives of the working class, removing workers from families and traditional social structures and giving them a kind of independence

• Ex: they cvould live away from home, manage income, pursue leisure activities that all helped to encourage urbanization and the urban working class.

• Middle class emergence put responsibility on women of middle/high class to master the domestic sphere (be involved at home not factory)

• New social classes developed: Aristocrats who became rich from industry, middle class made of skilled professionals, and working class below made of factory workers and peasant farmers.

• Free-Market system advocated by Adam Smith’s book The Wealth of Nations, talking about how economic prosperity achieved through private ownership, and by seeling in a free, open market the demand would determine price and they and nation would prosper.

• Laissez-faire capitalism: government removed itself entirely from regulation of market

• Book made in response to mercantilist European policies of dominating colonies for export, giving profit. European countries also started devloping capitalist policies/private investment(creation of British East India Company, factory work)

• Compare and Contrast: Before Industrialism wealthy class small, poor class huge, but Industrialism let poor class see the differences: wealthy factory owners profited by exploiting workers, and instead of seeing it as the way it always was, they recognized it.

• Karl Marx: Saw a flaw in the capitalist system through worker’s exploitation and the opportunities they had, writing about how working class would eventually overthrow and take control of production in The Communist Manifesto

• Ideas, known as Marxism, served as basis of socialism and communism

• Book also said how major industries all on the side of rich ppl, and once class struggle between woekrs resolved, ‘instruments of power “ wouldn’t be needed.

• Luddites: Group of workers protesting working conditions and wages, destroying factory equipment. Known for hatred of innovation.

• Greater amt of middle class/aristocracy advocated and began thinking of ways to fix inhumane factory system, wiith splitting paths of belief: Either capitalism good but should be reformed, or capitalism bad and should be replaced (US vs. Russia)

• Because of democracy/Enlightenment ideas in Britian/US, reforms started, while in RUssia where absolute power ruled, reforms was nonexistent, and Marxist ideas grew popular among ppl

• With the mix Marxism brought to social thought, it created systems that were partly socialist (part government controlled) or part capitalist (individuals owned some means of production), with much of EUrope deciding between the two after WW2.

• Reforms occurred after abuses/social consequences of Industrial REvolution known. Ex: Factory Act of 1883 (limiting hours of workday, restricted children, made factory owners make factories safer), formation of labor unions (groups where workers could band together and bargain collectively, striking if their demands werent met)

• Also wtf happy healthy workers were more productive?? Fasctory owners finally realized this??

• Developments helped to improve factory/city conditions and standard of living. Middle class increased, public education increased, Social Mobility (moving up social classes) more common, slave trade abolished.

• Rights of women + influence decreased as many left factories to work at home with men making more money. Plus, democratic reforms increasing men’s power made women start organizing to increase collective influence.

• Hardships persisted despite quality-of-life changes. So many Europeans immigrated to Americas, away from Famine in Ireland, away from anti-Semitism in Russia, or poverty/ joblesness.

• Industrial revolution (products) run by natural resources, which were mostly maintained by reserves in their respective countries (Europe), with some having to be imported (cotton, rubber)

• More Colonies == Richer bc they could force colonies to export to them and them only, and then buy finished products from them and them only, increasing profits at expense of colonies.

• As a result from thist hirst, colonies were established EVERYWHERE, with European ideas/influence spreading to those places.

• Industrial Revolution had harmful impact on environment, through its pollution and gobbling of natural resources, faster than at any time in human history.

• Despite progressive arguing for better working conditions, many Europeans saw others as barbarian and unsivilized, with many supporting the colonization of foreign lands (ethnocentrism, may have helped drive social advancement in Britain)

• This ethnocentrism birthed from 2 ideas: social darwinists claiming that dominant races/classes of people rose through survival of the fittest, meaning Britain, being most powerful, was most fit, and superior to all others.

• Plus: White Man’s Burden (moral obligation to dominate other people/teach others the European way, as Europeans knew what was best for everyone.

• With Mughals in decline, India vulnerable to external power influence, and with its trade being valuable to Europe, Britiain/France sought to take control of it for themselves.

• 7 Year’s War fought in lands of North America, Europe, and India, with British victory pushing France out of India (With troops supplied by British East India Company, a joint-stock corporation with rights over britsh-india trade)

• Took advantage of weakening mughals, setting up administrative regions throughout India and enveutally conquering the region.

• Sepoys, Indian soldiers working for British, used to administer regions. But they made a failed rebellion because of recognition of EastIndiaCompany’s thirst for expansion and the multiple offenses made against their religion by company

• Ex of offense: The bullet cartridghes that had to be bitten off to reload were greased with pig/beef fat, violating Muslim and Hindu religion)

• Consequences of Rebellion: Parliament got involved, took control of India instead of EastIndiaCompany, ended mughal empire through exiling of Bahadar Shah II, and made Queen Victoria empress of India.

• India was subject to all British imperialism: Raw materials went to Britian, finished products bought by India, upper castes taught English+European customs, CHristianity spread and railroads built, urbanization increased, gained education and sophistication

• All at the expense of Indian culture and Institutions. These educated upper castes would use this education to influence events, later dreaming of freeing India.

• Indian national Congress started path towards independence, while regular Indians continued adapting to british customs while trying to keep traditions.

• China was always pretty isolationist, only recently beginning trade with Europe and with very specific restrictions. Britain, however, with its industrialized might, would barge in.

• British introduction of opium into China completely wrecked Chinese populace, become so widespread and destructive that the Manchu emperor forbid the further sale of opium, seizing it in the trading port of Canton in 1839.

• Response: WAR! Overwhelemed by British might, the first Opium War resulted in the signing of the “unequal treaties” (Treaty of Nanjing) allowing British to expand trade w/ China more.

• British continued its imperialism by establishing a colony that violated trading rights bc of its location near the region: Hong Kong. Manchu Dynasty forced to obey, allowing Christian missionaries to come.

• And with more resistance towards expansion of opium trade, second Opium War began with China being destroyed, resulting in the opening of all of China to European trade.

• Imperialism in China took a different approach than the rest of Britian imperialism: instead of fighting for establishment of fcolonies, british fought for trading concessions.

• The World used to think that CHina was an advanced civilization. WIth these humiliating defeats, they (and the chinese people) realized how easy China was to target with its weak government and power, resulting in internal rebellion from the CHinese populace starting.

• White Lotus Rebellion: led by Buddhists frustrated over taxes + government corruption, eventually continued through to the Taiping Rebellion, with a man claiming to be Jesus’s Brother making a failed attempt to bring down government

• Rebels failed, but message was clear: China was geting destroyed.

• Manchu launched useless Self-Strenghtening movement to try getting strong again. Because of weak power, Korea declared its independence, war with France in Sino- French War resulted in loss of Vietnam, war with Japan in Sino-Japanese war resulted in loss of Taiwan + trade agrements similar to british trade agreements.

• French established colony of French indochina in Vietnam, while Japan defeated Koreans and took control of entire peninsula.

• France, Germany, Russia, Britian started establishing spheres of influence (heavily invested areas with military bases, business, etc) in China to increase their presence, carving up huge slices of China for themselves with Manchu still ruling.

• US got worried of losing trade in China, like India or Africa (ironic considering the Chinese Exclusion Act), establishing an Open Door Policy that pledged suport of Chinese govenrment and equal trading privledges among Europe and US.

• Nationalism among Chinese populace generated anti Manchu/European/Christian group named the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists (Boxers) whose goal was to drive imperial powers out of China, but foreign reinforcements destroyed rebellion.

• Result: Further humiliation of Manchu government, Boxer Protocol signed (China had to pay reparations and formally apologize for it)

• Chinese culture itself started to crumble as the forces of reform in Manchu dynasty couldn’t be stopped. Foot binding, Chinese examination system, and government itself all ended, with a new republic being established in China led by Sun Yat-sen.

• Japan succeeded with its isolation, but 19th century imperial powers Europe and US were too powerful to keep at bay (recognized by Japan when Commodore Matthew Perry arrived at Japan with a never-before-seen steamboat, shocking Japan)

• Trade Concessions won with Japan (Treaty of Kanagawa), but bc of European/US favoritism new nationalists rose and using leadership of Samurai they overthrew shogun and put Emperor Meiji at power.

• This new leadership brought a new era of Japanese westernization, with Industrialization starting, samurai’s abolished, and mandatory military service added.

• Isolation brought by Tokugawa Shogunate + attempt to Westernize while strengthening imperial traditions during Meiji led to increased cultural creativity developing new national identitt centered around military victories.

• With this new industrial might, it was able to reduce European/US influence, maintaining trade but on equal footing with other powers. It became its own imperial power, with a relatively quick industrial revolution + conquest of China’s land.

• Unlike China, India, and Japan, before industrial revolution Africa was still semi important to Europeans, having historial interest and impact. This is bc coastal regions of Africa were important for limited trade, strategic positioning, and slave trade.

• Enlightenment principles in Europe led to increased hatred towards slavery, with most nations abolishing the slave trade and abolishing slavery itself a few decades later (emancipation). Former slaves returned to either Africa or emmigrated to form new independent nation in Liberia.

• The irony is real: As slave trade ended, Africans found themselves simply subjugated intheir homelands due to imperailism in Europe w/ the establishment of colonies in Africa.

• British annexed entirety of South Africa after Boer War, in which settled Dutch (named Afrikaans) fought with Europe over region of Transvall bc of its diamonds/gold. Africans weren’t allowed to have this gold/diamonds, instead being forced to mine for it.

• Ottoman weakly ruled Egypt in 19th century, allowing local rulers (beys) to have greater influence over region. Napoleon’s attempts to conquer Egypt led to Muhammed Ali defeating French and Ottoman forces, wielding almost exclusive rule

• Began industrialization of Egypt, working on expansion of cotton production that was exported to British textile factories for huge profits.

• Westernization temporary halted by Abbas I but reinvigorated by successors, working with the French to build the Suez Canal (connected Indian/ Mediterranian sea making trade faster)

• Excessive government spending made Egypt sell stocks of Suez Canal in desperate attempt to raise funds, which British bought, allowing them to basically take control of Canal and Egypt (becoming British Procterate) (Technically a British colony with political power under Egyptian hands)

• Hosted by Otto von Bismark w/ the European powers, discussed control of European African land claims, setting up rules for future colonization rights + boundaries would be decided on African continent

• Within 3 decades nearly all Africa colonized by Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Belgium, with Ethiopia and Liberia remaining independent.

• Europeans added substantial infrastructure but stripped Africa of its resources for profit, treating natives harshly and exercised direct rule over colonies (except Britian, who let native populations govern themselves bc they were busy with India/China)

• British decision of allowing native populations rule similar to Roman Empire handling its far-flung territories centuries back.

• Berlin Conference focused on colonialism based on bargaining for political/economic advantage, meaning the boundaries made between colonies reflected European concerns and not African history/culture, splitting tribal lands in half or creating areas of conflict.

• Kinda useful for Europeans bc it made organization to rebel against colonizers more difficult, disrupting the culture

• And with addition of CHristian missionaries, European schools, and Western business practices, African culture began to die.

• Compare and Contrast: African + Americas colonialism similar due to boundaries made with complete disregard for already-existing societies, instead focusing on European benefit.Direct rule of African colonies (except British) similar to direct rule of Americas.

• Cultures were overridden in Africa, contrasting with spheres of influence in CHina which were more focused on profits rather than changing culture.

III: Nationalist Movements + Other Developments

• Napoleonic Era brought increased nationalism to Europe, with countries such as France, Spain, Portugal, Britain, andRussia unified and having massive empiers, while German/ Italian city-states were feudal and coinstant conflict, but nationalism + wave of industrial;ization brought Italy and German uinification, altering balance of power.

• Being a tangled mess of foreign-controlled small-kingdoms (Austria-controlled Venetia, lombardy, Tuscany, French-controlled Rome, papal states, Italy-controled Sardinia) Sardinia kingdom’s Victor Emmanuel II named Count Camillo Cavour prime minister and nationalism took off, as they both strongly believed in Italy unification.

• Cavour managed to remove Austrial influence from all parts except Venetia with help of European powers

• Giuseppe Garibaldi (italian nationalist) raised army and overthrew Sardinia, making Italy largely unified under Victor Emmanuel by 1860.

• Italy gained control of Venetia through Prussia partnership, won control of Rome with French withdrawal, unifying more but creating tense Europe boundaries.

• Some believed to expand to southern provinces of Austria/France, others believed it was enough. Plus, the regional development spurred by separate city-states caused cultural conflict, but it would still be able to assert itself in world events.

• Germany/Austrian Empire comprised of provinces (Hapsburgs) that hadn’t ben unified since decline of Holy Roman Empire, and since Peace of Westphalia asserted authority of regional governments, Prussia/Austria (politically) dominated.

• Under leadership of Fredrick the Great + successors, Prussia was able to use industrial revolution to achieve economic strength + supporting education helped create educated work force.

• William I appointed Otto von Bismark prime minister with the aim of building military to consolidate the German territories into an empire that could rival other Europeans. To do this Bismark defeated Austria (after ensuring other European powers would step in) and secured most of other German territories through war and annexation.

• Couldn’t get heavily catholic regions in the south, so by creating alliance with Catholic German states against French Aggression, then provoking France to declare war on Prussia (Franco-Prussian War of 1870) they consolidated German Catholic Regions under Prussian control.

• Bismark crowned King William I as emperor of new German emperor under second reich (first reich was Holy Roman Empire)

• Unification of Germany resulted in immediate industrialization, becoming a strong economic and political power. Socialists disliked Otto, and new emperor William II made Bismark resign bc he wanted to run country himself.

• Under his control and with the Industrial Revolution running, William II built huge navy, made colonies in Africa/Asia, and allowed Germany to become strong.

• To consolidatre power, Russia gave absolute power to Romanov tzars, with tzars like Alexander I and Nicholas I using secret police to maintain authority and stop hints of reform despite mostly-serf population demanding for change.

• Alexander II in 1860s (long after enlightenment) began some reforms, abolishing serfdom with Emancipation Edict (which didnt help at all). Some people moved to work in cities but had to face harsh working conditions unlike the changes made in the west.

• Compared to Western European counterparts, the existence of peasants was much more painful and pretty meager.

• Small middle class began growing, arts started flourishing. Ex: Tolstoy’s Anna Karenina + War and Peace, Dostoyevsky’s The Brothers Karamazov, Tchaikovsky’s Swan Lake, Nutcracker.

• Reform mounting in the form of intellectual class knowledgable on political/ economic thought of Wester Europe, leading to Alexander II’s assassination by The People’s Will (political group)

• Alexander III, through the process of Russification, attempted to suppress anything non-russian, by forcing all people to learn the language and convert to Russian Orthodox, with non-compliance met with execution (Jews specifically)

• Production capacity increased despite terrible factory conditions, putting greater demands on the already-stressed workers.

• Beginning its decline in 16th century, constant conflicts over land with the RUssians (with most resulting in Russian victory) as well as successful independence movements in Greece, Egypt, Arabia made Ottomans smaller and less powerful.

• To prevent total falling of Ottomans to the Russians, Britain/France supported Ottomans to prevent russian expansion (interventing in Crimean War) while also increasing influence of the area (British conquered Egypt)

• Even as European countries were colonizing Africa/Asia, Europe found itself shut out of western hemisphere developments due to the wave of independence movements in Latin America.

• To prevent any Europe recolonization, President Monroe’s Monroe Doctrine declaring Americas off-limits to Europe was put in place, with Britain and its powerful navy backing it up to prevent Spain from remaking its American empire.

• Result: Europe continued investing in Latin AMerican businesses but didn't make any territorial claims.

• Doctrine Angered some Latin American nations as they saw it as exercising its own form of imperialism over the region, which became clear as US incited Panamanians to declare independence from Cuba to build the Panama Canal.

• Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine: In response to warships sent to Venezuela for not paying debts, said that US would intervene in financial disputes to maintain the peace

• Spain conflicting with Cuba led to US intervention in Spanish-American war (sympathizing with cubans), leading to decisive American victory and gained control of Guam, Puerto Rico, Philippines.

• Cuba achieved independence in exchange for US concessions and establishment of 2 Naval bases on island, making US among the world powers.

IV: Technology and Intellectual Developments from 1750-1900

• Advances in Power/Transportation drove Industrial REevolution, with steam providing constant power for revolution.

• Transport: Millions of miles of rail lines were laid throughout Europe, India, Africa, Eastern Asia, facilitating movement of goods (trade) and resources

• Large number of laborers required for Industrial revolution + abolishment of slavery resulted in large-scale migrations (Europeans/East Asians immigrated to Americas, South Indians moved into other british-controlled territories)

• Creation of new forms of leusire activities, ideas, and literature for working class, along with the first department stores (ex: costco!!)

• Literature created by English/Japanese Women talking about working class life

• Industrialization brought need for new forms of job protection (new ideas + social classes), new imperialism (African colonies established and spheres of influence made in Asia/Ottoman areas) and interactions (merging of cultures - Japanese westernization)

• Impressionist period of 19th century EUrope based on Real Life, modernist art movements included cubism, surrealism, art nouveau

• Industrialization/Imperialism drove conflict, with new kinds of weaponry (development of automatic weapons, gasoline-powered automobiles and first tanks)being used to wreak havoc (ex: First World War)

V: Changes and Continuities in the Role of Women

• 19th century was a low point for women’s rights, as education, real wages, and professional opportunities seemed inaccessible for women, but the new intellectual/economic opportunities men had opened a few doors for women, with movements to give women their political/legal rights taking shape.

• Heavy restrictions on rights continued for women, but political/legal barriers for men based on class were eliminated. Plus, women were affected by new Enlightenment ideas of freedom, equality, and liberty, with feminist writers emerging in Europe.

• Reform movements, labor unions, socialist parties all occupied by middle/working class women

• Access to education still denied to women due to mental inferiority (social darwinism)

• Literacy rates in China/India remained low for both men and women (education wasn't a priority for imperialist powers), and Western Europe opened university education to women

Units 7-9: Global Conflict/ Globalization

I: The 20th Century

• In this period, most of Europe was either colonized or used to be, connecting the world to all global affairs, whether it be conflict (wars) or trade.Industrial revolution contributed to improvements in warfare, and rise in nationalism (Italy/Germany) made Europe hungry for power. This was not a time of peace.

• Ex: Seven Years’ War between France/Britain involved their colonies in Europe, Asia, and America

• To keep the balance of power in check, alliances formed within Europe. Triple Alliance negotiated between Germany, Italy and Austria-Hungary, formed due to Germany fearing its historic rival’s revenge (France, Franco-Prussian War).

• Any ties with Russia/Germany faded as William II, who ousted Bismark, ignored Russia. Russia then formed friendship with France, and then combined w/ Britain to form Triple Entente

• Schlieffen Plan: Attack France through Belgium (who had British Ties), defeat it and then turn towards Russia to win the war.

• Ottomans constantly getting weaker due to losing land (Independence movements: Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania. Montenegro, Bosnia/Herzegovina) and were known as “sick man of Europe”

• Berlin Conference of 1878 gave Austria-Hungary control of Bosnia/Herzegovina, despite Serbia wanting them/their independence. Plus, Russia allied w/ Serbia.

• Serbian Nationalist Gavrilo Princip shot Archduke Franz Ferdinand while he visited Sarajevo (capital), and the delicate peace was gone. Austria-Hungary’s declaration of war on Serbia brought a domino effect, roping alliances into war.

• Russia declared war on Austria-Hungary, putting pressure on Germany, Italy, France, Britain to join the war (Triple Entente/Triple Alliance divide). Britain reluctantly joined to protect France bc Schlieffen Plan, Italy declared itself neutral and Ottomans took its place, forming Central Powers.

• More than 40 Countries, including Japan/Italy (who joined Allies) all involved in war, with British colonies (India/Canada) joining as well. US remained neutral, preferring to focus on private interests (isolationism)

• But with the sinking of Lusitania by German submarine in 1915 and the Zimmerman telegram (secret German telegram asking Mexico to attack US) being intercepted, US finally joined the war in 1917

• War Concluded on Nov. 11th, 1918 at 11 AM, after years of trench warfare, new fighting tactics (tanks introduced, gas weapons/machine guns, new planes), and countless deaths, Central Powers slowly surrendered.

• Effects of War: 8.5 Million soldiers killed, 20 Million civilians killed, allowed women to increase rights (in particular, fight for women’s suffrage increased) when they took men’s place in factories as they joined the war effort. Governments took control of industry.

• EXTRA POINT: Named the “war to end all wars,” but it *changed* all wars instead. Men rode into war with Calvary, rode out in tanks, basic muskets/cannons evolved to high caliber artillery and machine guns/flamethrowers, gas weapons, increased plane tech.

• Britain/France made sure to destroy Germany to prevent another rise to power. Had to demilitarized Rhineland, lose territory, reduce military, pay huge reparations. Created new nations (Czechoslovakia), broke apart existing ones (Austria-Hungary split)

• Very much unlike Woodrow Wilson’s 14 Points which called for establishing peace and a workable balance of power, which was rejected by Britain/France bc they wanted to justify the human/financial cost of war, despite US pleas.

• Main Goal of Treaty was to make sure Germany would never threaten European security, but by destroying its economy, it built strong resentment towards the countries that made it suffer, creating the perfect groundwork for Adolf hitler’s Rise.

• Formed due to Woodrow’s 14 Points, addressing the issues of postwar treaties establishing international laws/standards of fairness in internation conduct.

• Organization created to preserve peace and establish humanitarian goals, but many nations refused (with Germany/Russia scoffing but later joining, and US congress embarrassing Woodrow Wilson by rejectiting it, preferring to remain isolationist.)

• Nicholas II’s reign was in trouble. Revolution as in the air, and attempts at stopping it (rally russians against Japan, lose terribly in Manchuria) furthered sentiment. Bloody Sunday, a brutal attack on a peaceful protest for Enlightenment reforms, further swayed opinion on the Tsar’s rule.

• Romanov Dynasty would soon end: Resentment grew among working class, Tsar put a prime minister + Duma (people-representing body), but Duma constantly disbanded when they went against the Tsar.

• Suffering from a lack of industrialization, its world’s largest army suffered large-scale losses to their better-equiped German rival, finding itself short on supplies and leadership.

• 1917: Tsar Nicholas abdicated, provisional government made (Alexander Kerensky)

• Government ineffective due to sharing power w/ Soviet (local councils). But it brought natural rights (equality of citizens/religious tolerance) and wanted to continue war, hoping to make Russia liberal democracy

• By misjudging how the Russian People felt about war, things estcalated, with soviets rallying behind socialist party in 1918 (Bolsheviks). Vladimir Lenin took worker/soldier support and issued April Theses. 6 Months later, Bolsheviks took control of government.

• April Theses advocated for peace, land for peasants, and power to soviets.

• Lenin started nationalizing assets/industries of Russia under his vision of mass socialization.

• March 1918: Germany forced Rusia to sign Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, making Russia cede a huge part of land with Germany and causing them to drop out of war.

• Baltic Republics + Urkaine/Siberia (former Russian Empire) all bgan counter- revolutionary revolts, which were put down with the Bolshevik-made Red Army under leadership of Leon Trotsky + support of peasants.

• Effects of Counterrevolution: Deepened distrust on counter-revolutionary supporting Western Europe and newly created Marxist state (Soviet Union

• Plus: Russia now had a New powerful army (Red Army)

• By joining central powers, Ottomans lost most of its remaning land after WW1, allowing Greeks to attack during 1919. Mustafa Kemal (Ataturk, “Father of the Turks”) led successful military campains against Greeks, overthrew sultan, and beacme first president of Modern-day Turkey (1923). Under his reign, reforms were made:

• Secularized mostly-muslim nation, introduced Western dress/customs (abolishing the fez), changed alphabet from Arabic to latin, set up president-dominated parliamentary system

• Changed legal code from Sharia (Islamic) to Western, set Turkey on a path towards Europe instead of middle east.

• Made reforms but with heavy opposition, and was sometimes ruthless

• Soviets started concentrating on Domestic problems after WW1. Lenin implemented New Economic Policy (NEP) which had capitalist aspects e.g allowing farmers to sell portions of own grain for own profit. Lenin died before he could expand NEP, and Stalin took his place, becomng new leader of Communist party.

• Immediately he discarded NEP bc “too slow,” putting the Five Year Plans in its place: calling for collectivization (forcefully taking over private farms, combining them into state-owned enterprises) and construction of large nationalized factories

• Under the guise of communism, but this process was basically totalitarianism, as people didnt share in power or profits with one guy controlling it all.

• Tons ppl died trying to protect farms, and tons more died from famines resulting from Stalin’s usurping of crops to feed government workers at expense of farmers.

• Result: successful industrialization of USSR, improved economic conditions for country.

• Stalin brought the “Great Purge” onto Rusia, where, by using terror tactics (secret police force, bogus trials, assassinations) the govrenment systematically killed tons of enemies. Also used labor camps.

• WW1’s $180 Million price tag of armaments, boats, trench warfare + $150 mil rebuilding all financed through capitalism. In particular, Americans lent Europeans tons of money (financial headquarters of world shifted from London to New York)

• France/Germany owed US most credit: Germany’s incredible debt due to war reparations made them use American credit to pay IOUs to countries e.g France, who, after loaning money to Tsarist Russia and not getting any back from Bolsheviks, took these “payments” to rebuild its economy,

• Result: Growth was artificial - These loans would never be paid

• US Stock Market Crash cascaded into increasing monetary/fiscal problems that culminated to the Great Depreswsion, becoming an international catastrophe. American banks stopped extending credit, Europe ran out of money, Germany couldn’t pay reparations without this american credit, so now France was also broke.

• In US/Germany, ⅓ of available workforce unemployed, and they elected Franklin Roosevelt in US. Since other countries had shaky political strucutres + Germany/Italy’s shallow democracy roots resulted in formation of Facism.

• Main Idea of Facism: destroy individual will in favor of “the people,” wanting a unified society (like communists) but without eliminating private property/class distinctions (unlike communists), pushing for an extreme nationalist identity (often relied on racism)

• Fascist parties began to emerge accross Europe during First/Seecond World War.

• Compare and Contrast: Fascism is a subset of Totalitarianism: Fascist rulers often extreme right-wing (rely on traditional institutions) /nationalistic (racism), while Communist rulers like stalin were extreme left-wing (wanted to destroy institutions)

• Both used same totalitarianism tactics, with both cases resulting in all power resting in the hands of a single militaristic dictator.

• Italy first state to have fascist government, with leader Benito Mussolini. Party paid Blackshirt squads to fight socialist/communist organizations, winning the loyalty of factory owners/landowners. This allowed fascist party members into italian parliament.

• Weak, timid (economic hardships) king Victor Emmanuel III named Mussolini prime minister using his paramilitary thugs to possibly attempt to steal power.

• A demoralized Italy due to unimproving postwar economy gave Mussolini little opposition in taking absolute power, taking over Parliament in 1922 and establishing constitutional changes that transformed Italy into totalitarian fascist regime.

• To Start a nationalist cause for the people Mussolini attempted expansion into Africa.

• Emperor abdicated after WW1 in Germany, with Workers’/Soldiers’ councils essentially making germany Socialist. However, a conservative democratic republic, representative of the mostly-conservative and relatively-prosperouse Germans, was formed (Weimar Republic)

• Germany’s economic crisis and Mussolini’s influence through his Facist takeover success allowed the National Socialist Party (Nazis) to rise to power, as the German economy collapsed more due to the weak handling by the Weimar Republic’s elected body (reichstag), whose useless solutions angered the German People.

• Head of the Nazi party, Hitler’s Nazism inspired immense nationalism through dreams of renewed greatness for Germany (like Italy), but also gave German people a scapegoat through social darwinism, establishing a superior Aryan race above the inferior Jewish.

• Nazi party gained political power in 1920s, and great depression of 1930s saw Nazis get increasing support (doubled seats in Parliament) with the leaders of Germany giving Hitler the role of Chancellor (Fuhrer) by 1933, which he used to seize control of government, and establish the Third Reich.

• Compare/Contrast: Nationalism in Europe/Japan fueled extreme racism, fascism, and domination, as national pride became synonimous with national expansion/conquest of other ppl, meaning national sovereignty instead of colonial/territorial expansion.

• Hitler began to rebuilt German military, violating Treaty of Versailles but garnering no Ally response, as they feared another war. Additionally, they left League of Nations but again had no response.

• Spain: Fall of spanish monarchy brought turmoil, with Francisco Franco and his army taking control of large parts of Spain. Democratic loyalists fought back, resulting in a civil war. Germany/Italy supported Franco, as they believed defeat of democracy good.

• France/Great Britain adopted nonintervention policy, allowing Franco’s troops to win, establishing a dictatorship in Spain that remained neutral during WW2.

• Message: Germany/Italy were willing to use their influence and support antidemocratic uprisings.

• Even after taking Rhineland, Allies did nothing. Then hitler formed alliance with nationalist Japan, annexed Austria and got ready to reclaim Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia, with a Munich Conference scheduled to discuss this.

• At Conference: Hitler/Mussolini/ Prime Minister Chamberlain present, who allowed Hitler to take Sudetenland (without Czech consent lol) in exchange for promising to end expansion (policy of “you can have it” == appeasement)

• Obviously, appeasement didn’t work, with tis goal of “avoiding war” not coming to fruition and Hitler taking rest of Czechoslovakia a year later. Allies did nothing

• Italy’s invasion of Albania, and Britain/France signing non-agreesion pact with Greece, Turkey, Romania, Poland saying if they were attacked we all went to war. In response Germans signed Nazi-Soviet pact, shocking Allies.

• Pact allowed Stalin/Hitler agreeing on not meddling in each other’s military affairs, while dividing Europe between themselves: Germany took Lithuania and East Poland, Russia took rest of Poland/Finland/Baltic States.

• World War 2 Began when German/Soviet forces marched into Poland, with Britain and France declaring war on Germany.

• Russo-Japanese War of 1904 kicked Russians out of Manchuria and established sphere of Influence for Japan. Japan/Britain made an alliance in 1905, demonstrating that Japan was now an equal among European states, making it an imperial/world power.

• Japan sent list of 21 demands to China to give Japan control of government/economy before WW1, while Japan’s Economy/Military thrived after victory in WW1. Focused on internal developments in 1920s, severely affected by Great Depression in 1930s.

• Beacuse of Great Depression, Japan militarists claimed that a large empire would remove Japan’s economic troubles, sparking renewed Japanese Imperialism.

• Invaded Manchuria (renamed it Manchukuo and established Japanese colony), withdrew from League of Nations, signed Anti-Comintern Pact against communism with GFermany, forming the foundations of alliance in 1936.

• 1937 saw Japanese invasions of China, pillaging towns and causing infamous Raping of Nanjing (nearly 200k Chinese slaughtered by military). Japan’s war with China merged into global conflagration of WW2 that started to take fire in Europe.

• Using Blitzkrieg tactics, Hitler’s forces were able to easily take over Poland, so fast that Stalin had to force mobilization to avoid losing all Poland to Germany. With Poland divided, Germany began assault on France, invading Holland/Belgium and entering France. Within a year, Axis powers controlled most of Europe, with the fall of France being a humiliating defeat. Hitler made sure to emphasize this.

• Hitler assumed that Britain would fall after France Defeat, but new Prime Minister (Winston Churchill) was much more fierce, refusing to make deal with Germans. To coerce a surrender, Germany launched massive bombbing campaign over Britain known as the Battle of Britain, pitting the superior Luftwaffe against the smaller Royal Air Force. However, strong Britsh morale and the rebuilding of runways allowed Britain to repel the German army, using a new tool (radar) to keep Germans off.

• Meanwhile, Italy’s forces proved ineffective when they tried conquering Greece, only able to defeat the country with German reinforcement in 1941. This violated the treaty with Russia as Greece was one of the Baltic countries promised to Stalin, creating consequences that Hitler decided to solve with Operation Barbarossa, the largest land invasion ever, of the largest country - Russia. Stalin was unprepared for the assault, with German forces advancing quickly. This new focus on the Eastern front relieved pressure on the only Allied nation fighting - Britain.

• This would later change, as Japan’s increased imperialism (Conquering Indochina/ Vietnam and continuing expansion in China) would further sway US opinion against the hostile (seen this way bc trade reasons) Japanese, resulting in Japan’s US assets being frozen + sanctions placed on Japan. Japan entered a Tripartite pact with Rome/Berlin that ensured worldwide consequences for the seemingly-regional war. To prevent US intervention and in response to US not pulling sanctions, Japan bombed US fleet at Pearl harbor and declared war, with the US following suit and Germany too for some reason.

• With US support, Britain and US were able to formulate a land attack against Germany, while Japanese fighitng in Pacific/German and Italian fighting in Africa continued. US began development of Manhattan Project around this time as well. Finally in 1943, US/Britain started offensive in Italy, and next year American, british, and Canadian forces began the storming of French Beaches, controlled by the german puppet state Vichy France, in an invasion known as D-Day. With the help of French resistance force, Allied forces were able to liberate france in the summer of 1944.

• Meanwhile, Russia moved its factories after Hitler’s invasion, and with this new equipment they launched a counteroffensive in Stalingrad, winning a decisive victory and beginning to push Germans out of Russia. They didnt stop until they reached Berlin, and with Allied/Soviet troops closing in on both sides, the Third Reich was no more. Hitler commited suicide and the war now shifted to the Pacific.

• Turning point for the US came at the battle of Midway, with US successfully predicting Japan’s attack. From there onwards, US began an island-hopping campaign, defeating Japan each time with its superior navy. Japanese refused to surender, with their strong military code of dying while fighitng being the highest honor resulting in brutal warfare. US was close to reaching the mainland of Japan and had to decide between using nukes to hopefully result in fewer casualties than a prolonged war, or invade Japan itself.

• Nukes were decided, and President Truman dropped the Hiroshima bomb on August 6th, 1945, with Nagasaki following in the 9th, with japan finally surendering and the war ending.

• Knwon in Germany as “the Final solution,” millions of Jews and other “inferior races” across Germany and german-occupied territories were rounded up, used as the scapegoat for society’s failures, and forced into camps, where many were killed in gas chambers or by firing squad.

• Approx. 6 Million were killed, making Holocaust largest genocide act in History

• 6 million more Poles, Slavs, Gypsies, Gays, Disabled, and Political enemies killed

• News of Holocaust brought increasd sympathy for the creation of Israel as a Jewish homeland.

• With nukes, the United States and Soviet Union became superpowers. Additionally, the Allies + Soviet Union occupied Germany, with war crime tribunals set to prosecute Nazi officials. Japan: forced to demilitarize, US occupied and established Western democracy, and later became economic powerhouse, embracing capitalism.

• Staggering loss of life (Soviet Union lost 20 million), infrastructure/communities destroyed, resulting in creation of US Marshall Plan (billions of dollars sent to Europe for its economic recovery, only accepted by Western European nations) which helped a lot.

• With imperialism already on the decline before WW2, the war siomply solidified attitudes about empire expansion and inspired native popuilations to rise up against oppressors.

• During WW2, like WW1, women worked outisde the home, raising money to support themselves and their families while also contributing to the war effort (Britain had 40% of adult women 40+ years working during war), with many women keeping jobs or seeking education after war.

• Allies believed that network of international organizations could reduce probability of another war, resulting in creation of United Nations, whose primary goal was to mediate or intervene in international affairs/disputes, while increasingly involving itself with the monitoring of social issues as time passed.

• Formation of World Bank, International monetary Fund, General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (World Trade Organization) also established, to create and manage a more integrated global economy (belief that connected economies would decrease conflict)

• Differing worldviews of US/Soviet union (Capitalism vs. Communism) would cause great competition for superiority/containment of the other among the two superpowers

• Lasting from 1945-1990s, almost entire world affected as the two superpowers (indirectly) fought for global domination, sometimes pulling other governments into their fights using their military influence to choose their preffered side.

• Biggest Conflict: Future security, as both superpowers wanted Europe to embrace their respective worldview (US-promoted capitalism and democracy, Soviet-promoted communism and totalitarianism). Western Europe mostly American influenced, but Eastern Europe + Germany was debated.

• Conferences at Yalta/Potsdam decided that Germany/East Europe divided into temporary spheres of influence, with each occupied by Allied member. In particular, Germany divided between France, Britain, US, and Soviets.

• Soviets wanted neighboring states (Poland, Czechoslovakia, hungary, Romania, Bulgaria) to adopt Soviet influence, ended up creating puppet states in those regions despite US vying for free elections, hinting at the Cold War’s creation.

• British, French, and AMerican sects unified into West Germany, while Soviets had their East Germany. Berlin divided into East/Western zone, but to try controlling all of Berlin they blocaded Berlin from West (Berlin Blockade) resulting in the Berlin Airlift, flying in food and fuel to “trapped” western half. Massive success, Soviets eventually ended block.

• Eventually Soviets built a wall between two halves of Berlin to prevent East Berlinners from moving to West berlin and staying bc it was better in 1961.

• Eastern Bloc: East Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Hungary, Yugoslavia (established its own path bc tense relations with Moscow.) Western bloc: Britain, France, italy, Belgium, Netherlands, Norway, West Germany, Greece/Turkey (eventualy)

• Truman Doctrine of 1917 stated anti-communist policies, such as aiding countries threatened by communist takeovers (policy known as containment - containing enemy)

• Resulted in formation of military alliance NATO among western bloc, with Eastern bloc forming the Warsaw pact in response.

• Each side put weaponry (eventually nuclear) on each side, daring the other to strike first. Plus, Easterners not allowed to move to West, which Churchill dubbed “Iron Curtain”

• Some countries allied with one superpower over the other, but other countries refused to take sides and accepted investment from both (nonalightment, ex: India)

• Fall of Manchu Dynasty brought Chinese Revolution of 1911, headed by Sun Yat-sen in an effort to westernize China to gain power and remove Europeans/Japanese. Sun promoted his Three Principles of the People: nationalism, Socialism, and Democracy in an effort to unite the people, give a Chinese identity, bring industrialization/capitalism

• Sun advocated for a democratic system but established a political party (KMT, Kuomindang) dedicated for his own goals. His successor (Chiang Kai-Shek) established this party as the ruling party for a little but because of 2 havoc-wreaking forces.

• Japanese taking over Manchuria and trying to invade all of China in 1930s, and Soviet-backed communists gaining strength in Northern China, who joined KMT against Japanese but were bitter rivals of KMT in struggle to control CHina.

• During WW2 US backed KMT in fight against japan while Soviets too busy with Germany to back communst efforts. With Japan’s defeat, Communists and KMT fought in Chinese Civil War as democracy/communism clashed.

• With millions of peasants rallied, communists under Mao Zedong swept towards KMT strongholds, sweeping south until they fled to Taiwain where they established Republic of China. Impact: Mao established People’s Republic of China, both claim to be real China, Taiwan became economically prosperous but constantly overshadowed

• UN and even US recognized People’s Republic of China as real China

• Taiwan refuses efforts of reunification, but they grew closer together.

• Made successful policies similar to Stalin’s five-year plans, collectivizing agriculture/industry and instituting social reforms. Implemented Great Leap Forward (huge communes created to solidify revolution’s goal of true Marxist state)

• Plan Failed: local governments couldn't keep up with agricultural demands of the communes, lying about their product and leading to millions of chinese deaths.

• Mao’s successes were being turned around, as initiatives from 1950s erased and agriculture/industry failed to produce results. Part of problem was lack of Soviet Support, as soviets wanted Communist world under THEIR control.

• Because of Failure, Mao worked on military instead, essential without soviet support. With elements of capitalism in economy China had its first atomic bomb, but Mao didnt like this straying from a communist path, so he instituted Cultural Revolution.

• Goal: discourage anything approaching a privileged ruling class (aka discourage any Western/Soviet influence). Process: Reforms that removed all traces of Western influence, shutting down universities and sending skilled workers into “cultural retraining” while improning political dissidents

• Universities reopened to teach communist studies/vocational training only, with Mao’s Little Red Book serving as collection of his teachings on communism and a symbol of forced egalitarianism (all ppl equal) of cultural revolution,

• Compare and Contrast: Confucianist dynasties of China past focussed on class structure and family values. Communists focused on practicality, removing class structure and rendering family farms obsolete. They weren’t sympathetic to religious/philosophical beliefs that challenged the state’s authority.

• Effects: Practicality brought the One-Child Policy to Combat overpopulation, which resulted in outrage that eventually repealed the policy

• Additionally, equality demanded in classless society gave women more rights, as Husbands/Wives treated equally (by the law) while getting equal pay for equal work + more opportunities.

• Economy transformed from a strict communist command economy to one that includes free-market capitalism, with Deng Xiaoping facilitating these capitalist-like changes (government entered joint ventures w/foreign businesses, allowed for limited business/ property ownership to drive hard work and innovation)

• Successful reforms: allowed china’s economy to expand faster than most of the world, while reforms slowly roll out to give economy time to change.

• Despite reforms, government continues to remain strictly politically communist, frequently resisting capitalist govenrment/social reforms (Ex: Tiananmen Square massacre, which named for democratic reform)

• After Japan’s defeat, Korea occupied by Soviet Union and US, with both wanting to establish their own political structure. As a result two separate governemnts emerged: Soviet-backed communist regime in North and US-backed democracy in South.

• North Korea attacked South Korea to try unifying both nations, which was met with UN forces on South Korea’s side, who pushed all the way until China’s border. China intervened on behalf of communist north, and armistice eventually created.

• Today, South Korea, with US military support, is an economic powerhouse, much more posperous than the communist, isolationist North with its massive food shortages but capable navy + nukes. Even today the issue still stands.

• Nationalist Vietminh fought w/ French over Indochina after WW2. 2 Sides developed again: Ho Chi Minh w/ communist North and Ngo Dinh Diem w/ democratic south. War soon broke out, France and US aided South Vietnam, later withdrew and Vietnam taken over by Viet Cong Fighters, establiishing communist state under Ho Chi Minh

• Effects: Communism increased in region, Superpower defeated by small, determined nation, US foreign policy feared for “another vietnam” for decades

• Under Terms of Platt Amendment, US remained involved in Cuban affairs through US military bases, investing heavily in Cuban businesses/plantattions that only benefitted wealthy. US also supported Batista Dictatorship, who continued wealthy support.

• As a result, a peasant revolt (Cuban Revolution) began under Fidel Castro, who, by using guerilla warfare techniques, caused Fulgencio Batista to flee, establishing a communist dictatorship, executing rivals and seizing industries.

• US concerned about communist dictatorship and economically embargoed Cuba which made Soviet-Cuban relationship stronger, increasing US fears. Attempted overthrow invasion (Bay of Pigs Invasion) failed as US scaled back support.

• As a result of this, Cuba set up Soviet medium-range missiles, resulting in the Cuban Missle Crisis, the closest the world has been to nuclear war.

• In the end, Soviet said that they’d remove Cuban missiles if US promised not to invade Cuba.

• Collapse of Soviet Union meant Cuba would suffer, losing its main financial backer. However Castro kept his power, but declining communism in Europe destroyed Cuba economic conditions. Castro transferred responsibility to brother, died in 2016.

• As a product of Cold War Tensions + Roosevelt Corollary to monroe Doctrine, USA remained active in latin American affairs as anti-capitalist message of Marxism became more appealing to less-developed countries with US investment in the region for its own benefit (copper-mining and oil-drilling), resulting in Radical parties developing.

• Latin America became less of a priority because of the two wars + great depression, allowing latin America to explore paths to economic development: Single Part Rule (Mexico’s PRI), Militaristic leader brutality (Argentina’s Juan peron), development of socialist democracies (Nicaragua/Guatemala, got most US attention)

• Bewcause of the ongoing ideological war with soviets at the time, the governments of Nicaragua/Guatemala found themselves experiencing US-backed coups, targeting of the Sandinista guerillas, etc.

• Biggest Issue: Export Economies, as reliance on exportation of coffee/sugar/fruit/oil resulted in weak domestic economies + increased debt, with these issues continuing the challenge the region today.

• However during 21st century, tremendous growth has begun (attributed to rising oil prices, development of new industries/trade agreements with US/Canada), with Chile/Brazil being among the fastest growing economies in the world.

• Democracy in Mexico/Venezuela: Multi-party election happened for first time in Mexico in 200, with opposition PAN winning twice, and then PRI in 2012.

• Venezuela: Changed constitution to allow third term for Hugo Chavez, who has nationalized industries. Nicholas Maduro continues these policies.

• Despite economic swings in Western Europe, quality of life improved, and Eastern European nations couldn’t keep up with innovations in west, with the wealth gap becoming more apparent.Eastern bloc people began to revolt as it became obvious.

• Revolts were about democracy, self determination, and economy, with many of the different nationalistic people of the Soviet Union wanting to control their own destinies, with many aching for reform by the 1980s

• Sweeping reform brought to poland due to decline of communism. Under leadership of Lech Walesa, thousands of workers began the Solidarity movement for reform of the communist economic system, with the government oppressing Solidarity.

• Later reform-minded Rawoski, becoming Premier of Poland, legalized Solidarity and allowed Tadeusz Mazowieki to become prime minister in the first open elections since WW2

• As communist party fell apart in poland in 1990, as it did all throughout Western Europe, Lech Walesa elected president, and he introduced market-based reformed and new democrfatic constitution, even joining NATO and the European Union to complete its integration into the west.

• Decline of communism in soviet blo led to reunification of Germany as a free-market democracy, with East Germany cutting ties with Soviet Union and beginning negotiations for reunification with West Germany.

• Western nation fear for unification of germany leading to nationalistic regime was undermined by the prospect for peace, economic/political reform, and improved standard of living for the people of East Germany.

• Businesses of the East still struggled as their outdated corporate structures, equipment, and machinery couldn’t compete with the West, while East Germans fled to the West with the fall of the Berlin Wall.

• High unemployment was high in both East/West Germany, but government continued its ambitious reconstruction program in order to modernize former East Germany and establish nationwide communication/transportation lines

• Today: Germany is a leading economy in Europe.

• Mikhail Gorbachev’s coming to power was instrumental in the change of Soviets, as he instituted policies of glasnost (peace), urged perestroika (restructuring) of soviet economy (resulting in elements of private-enterprise added to economy)

• Began nuclear arms treaties with US, publicy denounced Great Purge (showing Soviet Union re-evaluating itself), and made tons of other reforms

• Result: poland and other former Soviet satellites declared separation from USSR, which itself disintegrated in 1991, with Russia becoming its own country again along with Ukraine, Belarus, Georgia becoming independent nations.

• While most of the shifts in power happened relatively peacefully, there were exceptions: Balkan regions had nationalistic movements (Former Yugoslavia had an “ethnic cleansing” where Bosnian/Albanian Muslims raped/killed by Christian Serbians)

• Result: Involvement of UN troops during 1990s

• Other places had these nationalistic revolts (Ex: Muslim-dominated Chechnya in Russia wanted to break away, using terrorist/guerrila warfare)

• By the end of 1991, Cold War ended, Warsaw Pact disbanded, US only world Superpower as the new coutries from the Soviet Bloc implemented constitutional democracies, economic systems based on capitalist variations, and transition from state-owned to private-owned industries.

• The new Russia was reformed under 1993 constitution: Abrupt introduction to democracy and capitalism has resulted in corruption, high unemployment, deep poverty, widespread crime, nostalgia for soviet-style control and disipline, despite the workings of a perfect federal state (good size, good resources)

• Russia’s first president (Boris Yeltsin) had to reform state and societal structures, resigned in 1999 allowing Vladimir Putin to head the state.

• Russia is still plagued with corruption, limits on opposition canditdates, limits on free press, etc.

• End of WW2 brought independence movements among European colonial holdings, because it became difficult for Western colonial powers to keep their post WW2 principles aligned with Imperialist policies (Cold War), + subjugated ppl had enough.

• Mostly-Hindu Indian National Congress + Muslim League created to increase rights of their respective religions under colonial rule. Amristar massacre catapulted the movement, as its unprovoked, entirely unwarranted nature caused millions to join.

• The Amristar massacre: hindu/muslim peaceful protestors protesting the unjust arrest of their leaders slaughtered in city park

• Mohandas Ghandi: Used philosophy of passive resistance (civil disobedience) to organize huge protests against colonial rule, gaining popular support. By boycotting goods and refusing to work (ex: salt factories), his success became enormously influential

• Hindu-raised but religiously-tolerant Gandhi disturbede by incresae in violence between Hindus/Muslims whose radical members couldn’t collab together in fight for freedom. Gandhi named for Indian unity, Muslim league pushed for creation of muslim nation

• British conceded, but the real violence began between radical hindus/Muslims

• Gandhi thoughtto create unified India where Muslims/Hindus could practice, Muhammed Ali Jinnah thought to partition subcontinent into Muslim nation in north.

• British Decision: To prevent people from killing each other, they made India in south, Pakistan in northwest, East pakistan (blangladesh) in northeast.

• Both parts of Pakistan Muslim, india officially secular but mostly Hindu. Movement of people to respective regions of religious worship resulted in millions of deaths, with Gandhi even assasinated bc of his secularity.

• Borders of nation still fought to this day, witht eh migrations still causing problems. Even Ghandi was assassinated by a hindu nationalist who was upset with his secular motivations.

• Partly inspired by events in India, rest of World, and WW2 itself, African nations becan vying for independence, feeling that if they were willijg to die for their govenring country (which they were), they had earnt the right to live free.

• South Africa: significant british colony with heavy investment in institutions/ infastructure, established as Union of South Africa with considerable amt of self-rule but still British commonwealth, Afreican National Congress formed as well.

• Under new Union constitution, only white men could vote, giving native populations little rights.

• African national congress formed by educated South Africans with the goal of opposing European Colonialism + specific South African policies (compare: similar to Indian National Congress)

• Islamic-tied nations north to sahara next to win independence. Egypt won independence early but had close ties to Britain. Independence movement started by Gamal Nasser, which then influenced other Islamic nationalists to seek independence.

• Gamal Naser: Egyption general, overthrew king, establisherd republic, made reforms (nationalized industries including Suez Canal, became intertwined with Middle Eastern conflicts, etc)

• Indepdence trickier south of Sahara, as everyone wanted independence while having zero resources, zero education, and with few skilled workers (Unlike in India), so once colonial powers left, establishing a self-sufficient society would be difficult.

• Additionally, nationalism through unity among natives wasn’t forming because the boundaries made by colonizers were inconsiderate to African history, causing the merging of different tribes with little unity, contributing the the strife African nations had when trying to build strong, stable, independent countries

• Algerians fought independence war with France, Nigeria/Ghana negotiated their independence with Britain, Kenya, under leadership of Jomo kenyatta, negotiated constitution with britain after coffee planters unwilling to lose profitable property had a moment. Angola/Belgian Congo overthrew colonial governments but then had civil wars.

• Zimbabwe was among the last to establish African majority rule in 1980.

• African Union: Economic/political confederation consisting of 53/54 african nations, replaced the OAU in 2001. Meant to bring peace, but the opposite has been happning.

• Ex: Chad, Sudan, uganda, Somalia, Rwanda, Democratic Republic of Congo experiencing civil wars, attempts at forming stable democracies foiled by “big man” politics, corruption, military coups, escalating debt payments to IMF and World Bank, with Kenya’s relatively stable government experiencing pol. Violence

• Most of Africa rich in natural resources (Palm oil/Rubber + protroleum/metals), causing colonial powers + China to be invested in nations of Africa

• Globalization + NGOS: Non-governmental organizations are private, nonprofit, agencies that provide relief services or advocate for groups. Ex: Red Cross, Doctors without Borders, Amnesty international, etc. NGOs lead relief efforts after disasters.

• Formed After WW2 because people citizized intrenational government organizations (UN, World Bank) for only catering to needs of wealthy world powers, so well-meaning individuals founded companies that filled the need.

• Globalization has allowed for ease of communication/transport, allowing NGOS to provide their services easily and raise money to fund operations easier.

• Ethnic Strife, Genocide, human rights violations in Rwanda exemplify the difficulties of establishing stable nations in Africa. These are caused by conflicts stemming from Tulsi minority group governing the. Hutu majority group during German/Belgian occupation

• Belgian rule allowed for bloodshed bc of exacerbation of interethnic tensions.

• Genocide caused by the fredom of Rwanda is among most devastating in history

• Compare and Constrast: India/Africa trajically torn apart by ethinc/religious strife after gaining independence in years after WW2, but religious tensions were always present among India (Muslims vs Hindus) while independence in Africa served as opporutnity for long-held hatreds to materialize in power struggles.

• Union of South Africa formed through combination of Two British colonies with Two Dutch Boer republics, with black ppl entirely excluded from political process.

• Residential segregation established and enforced in 1923, with blakcs banned from work in several areas that whites wanted for themselves (1926). South African independence in 1931 still kept these racial policies, establishing system of apartheid in 1948

• Apartheid meant to keep whites away from blacks, and it even extended to the “homelands” aka parts of country “set aside” for blacks, comprising 15% of land while being in worst parts of country

• Meanwhile, whites given cities, resource-rich mines, best farmland, with the blacks that opted to remain in cities often segregated into black slums.

• Nelson mandela, inspired by Gandhi, headed African National Congress and were determined to abolish apartheid. After Sharpeville massacre of 67 peaceful protestors, guerilla warfare started

• Sharpville protest was against the “pass” system, where black needed pass to work in the city. Mandela arrested in 1964 for role in anti-apartheid violence.

• Decades of increasing pressure from black majority + international community led to release of mandela, and negotiations abt apartheid ended with government crumbling, abolishing apartheid and electing Mandela as first president.

• Fall of Ottoman Empire and creation of turkey put Middle East in control of league of nations temporarily, with France put in charge of Syria/Lebanon and Britain getting Palestine, Jordan, Iraq, Arabia united as Saudi kingdom, Persia/Iran divided into spheres of influence between Russia and Britain during 19th century.

• Jews occupied lands In Palestine during Roman Empire, but shifting power over region brought Islam to Palestine, with generations of Muslims calling Palestine home while Jews bolted to Europe/Other palestine Areas.

• WW1 had Zionists (Jewish nationalists) convincing British foreign secretary Arthur Balfour that Jewish homeland in Palestine was just/desirable, and he issued Balfour Declaration of 1917 issuing right for a home in Palestine for Jewish people without displacing the currently-occupying Palestinians.

• As British got governance of territory after WW1, they were able to make their declaration come to fruition. However, declaration was messy because it essentially asked Palestines/Jews to divide land they both claimed.

• Many jews (mostly russian, fleeing violent anti-semetic mobs/pogroms) started straming into Palestine, making Palestinians uneasy. As hitler came to power, even more Jews fled to Palestine. Despite Palestinians>Jews, Jews now had serious pol. sway

• United Nations created one Palestine for Jews, and another for Palestinians (Muslims), causing Muslims from 6 arab countries to attack Israel as soon as David Ben-Gurion was elected prime minister (1848 Arab-Israeli War), with israeli military capability shocking the Arab nations. Israelis got control of most Paestine, while jorden held the West Bank.

• Now, palestinians had no home, as Israelis took over it.

• Compare/Contrast: Similar to Indian/Muslim partitioning of India, and there’s still conflict going on there today.

• Constant skirmishes continued, normally resulting in Israeli victory (Six day War let them take control of West Bank, Sinai Peninsula, Gaza strip from Egypt, Golan Heights from Syria). These territorial gains led to increased palestinian migration to Israel.

• Muslims resented Israeli control of “Dome of the Rock,” an important Islamic shrine that also held importance to Jews as the Temple Mount.

• Israel prime minister Menachem begin and Egyption President Anwar Sadat signed Camp David Accords, which led to Israel pulling out of Sinai Peninsula in exchange for Egypt being only Arab country recognizing Israel as real.

• Result: Sadat assassinated, huge blow to Palestinians and other Arab Nations, lands gained from 6-day war are still contested today.

• Palestinians/Israelis still fight over occupation of West Bank, Golan Heights, Gaza Strip, with the Palestine Liberation Organization fighting (and failing) to establish palestine homeland, as efforts remain complicated by the intifada (uprising)

• Intifada was an on--off movement that sometimes used terrorism against Israeli citizens in an attempt to destroy Israel or force it into withdrawal of territories.

• New Intifada reignited violence in 2000, with suicide bombings causing prime minister Ariel Sharon to build a wall between West Bank (palestine) and Israel

• Effects: Compared to Berlin Wall, critizised by international community or is draconian nature, successful in preventing terrorism.

• UN, EU, US, and Russia outlined a “Roadmap to Peace” for the region with a set of goals. Death of palestinian president/PLO leader Yassir Arafat allowed Roadmap to start, with new president Mahmoud Abbas signing a cease-fire with Israel, ending the intifadas.

• Disengagement plan adopted by Israeli government saw all Israeli settlers move or be moved from Gaza Strip by 2005, dividing the Israeli public. Additional settlements disbanded in West Bank as well.

• Peace will not be achieved until Palestines/Israelis can agree on movement into/outside Palestinian Authority-controlled territories, disarmament of militant groups, potential independence of a Palestinian state

• Situation even more complex due to limited financial stability, political divisions (Fatah and Hamas, branch of former PLO vs. Islamic Resistance Movement) among palestinians. Both are incredibly divided with violent clashes often

• Because of frequent support of terrorist attacks, Hamas is the target of Israeli army more often + are not suported by US and European countries as they are listed as a terrorist organization

• Coup in 2007 led to Hamas government in Gaza strip and Fatah government in West Bank. President Abbas (Fatah) elected Salam Fayyad prime minister, seen as illegitimate by Hamas

• Another Presure point: Border with lebanon/Syria, as a militant Shia group backed by Syria and Iran (Hezbollah) fought with Israel after they captured 2 israeli soldiers. Also, Syria has a controlling hand in Lebanon politics.

• By ousting the shah who allowed European spheres of influence to take Persia over, Reza Shah Pahlavi rose to power, taking a stance similar to Japanese in Meiji Restoration by deciding to join Westernizers to beat them.

• After Europeans left in WW2, Westernization efforts gained momentum, with the shah instituting land/education reform, increasing rights of women (suffrage granted, more opportunities/education/career)

• Reforms infuriated many Islamic Fundamentalists, who wanted law of Qaran to be law of land, while making others believe they weren’t enough (specifically, political system lacked democratic changes).

• Islamic Fundamentalists sought to reverse economic/social changes.

• Violent reaction as result of dissent, continuing his reforms despite opposition. President Carter’s congratulations of Iran’s Westernization/Modernization programs made Islamic fundamentalists start Iranian Revolution

• Result: Sent Iran back to Theocracy led by Ayatollah (mirror of God): Khomeini. As Iran primarily Shia and ayatollah was Shiite caliph, which explained Iran-Iraq (Iraq was sunni muslim) war.

• Result: Modernization/Westernization programs reversed, Islamic law became basis of legal system (women forced to return to traditional roles + wear Islamic clothing)

• Following series of border disputes, Iraq invaded Iran, with Iraq leader Sadaam hussein’s quiet support from US (who was still mad over Iran taking US hostages during revolution).

• Result: Even US support couldn’t end war, which resulted in a cease-fire withj neither side gaining any ground.

• Since Ayatollah khomeini’s death, Iran characterized by power struggle between Islamic fundamentalists and reform-minded, pro-western minority. Plus, development of “peaceful” nuclear tech sparked concern in US despite claming they had “right as an independent nation”

• Along with International Atomic Energy Agency/EU, US is calling on IRan to either limit or eliminate its nuclear programs.

• 2005-2013: Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, ultra-conservative mayor of Tehran, was president of Iran, succeded by politically moderate Hassan Rouhani. Matters complicated further with American-led war in Iraw, Iran/Iraq Shia population relationships, and development of weapon/nuclear programs in Iran

• Industrial Revolution supported Middle East due to thirst for Oil, and they happen to have ⅔ of world’s known oil reserves. As multinational corporations raced to obtain drilling/production rights, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq earnt billions annually.

• Oil usage made world very interested in Middle East, sometimes leading to intervention or war.

• Industrial revolution helped make oil an important commodity, as Industrial revolution solidified Oil’s importance as Fuel.

• Region of Middle East + other oil-exporting nations united as OPEC, a petroleum cartel (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries).

• With ¾ of all Oil reserves in the world, OPEC members could control supply of oil and therefore, control profits. Ex: Dramatic cut of supply in 1970s led to billions of extra dollars for OPEC members, which they used to improve their countries.

• Much less powerful today due to inability to keep members in line, but still holds huge power over world’s economy.

• Increased interest in maintaining international security after WW2 and formation of UN, with organizations like NATO, UN, and International Atomic Energy Agency, as well as the International Criminal Court in The Hague (to prosecute war crimes/crimes against humanity for all people)

• NGOS like Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, Doctors Without Borders publicize issues that threaten human health and safety and provide aid to those in need.

• Under Sadaam hussein, Iraq invaded Kuwait in 1990, wanting to gain control of more oil (doubling Iraq’s oil reserves to 20% of the world, allowing it to make advances on Saudi Arabia/UAE that would’ve given Iraq control of over half of oil), but industrialized West reacted immediately, sending forces to drive Iraqis out of Kuwait in Persian Gulf War.

• Result: successful liberation of Kuwait, humiliation of Iraq (subject to UN monitoring, severe military activity limitations, economic sanctions), while Hussein remained in power, keeping his Brutal dictatorship

• Many say he ignored many parts of his peace treaty after invasion of Kuwait.

• 2003 saw coalition of country forces attempting to oust Saddam from Power, with his govrnment quickly falling and Saddam captured intul december. New democratic government formed in its place, but Iraq increasingly plagued with conflicts

• Conflicts with Sunni, Shiites, Kurds, with Suicide bombings.

• Despite violence new constitution ratified, giving “representation” to the legislative seats (women, religious people). New elected government took office in May 206, with jalal Talabani (Kurdish) as president and Nouri al-Maliki (shia) as prime minister

• Number of challenges faced by government, and even today Iraq must continue contending with trying to find stability in its new govenrmental incarnation.

• At request of Marxist military leader Nur Muhammed Taraki (who made military coup against prev. government), Soviet Union sent thousands of troops to Afghanistan, which angered Afgan people (they opposed communism/soviet intevention)

• Result: Massive Civil War with resistors calling themselves “holy wrriors” and launching guerilla ttacks against superior Soviet forces

• Result of Civil War: Gorbachev agreed to withdraw soviet troops due to internal SOviet problems escalating, with a peace accord signed

• Problems in Afghanistan continued even after fall of communism, with warring factions filling the void until 14 years later, where the Taliban (Islamic fundamentalist regime) finally taking power by taking over capital of Kabul in 1996.

• Imposed strict Islamic law (restrictions on women), privded safe haven for terrorist network leader Osama Bin laden, whose organization (Al-Qaeda) was severely against Saudi Arabia and US (due to US cozy relationship with them)

• Reasons for Al Qaeda Hating US: US supports Israel which Al-Qaeda wants to destroy, has troops stationed in Saudi Arabia, and is primary agent of globalization (which Al Qaeda believes is infected Islamic Culture)

• September 11th: Al Qaeda hijacks 4 passenger jets and crashes them into World Trade Center, Pentagon, and field in Pennsylvania. 2500 civilians killed with towers falling, total casualties are 3000+, with US immediately launching war against terrorism.

• Effect: Taliban quickly removed from power, US/UN forces occupied Afghaistan, Al-Qaeda still survives despite death of Osama Bin Laden

• Smaller scale suicide bombings/terrorist attacks occur regularly in Israeli territories, between Sunni/Shia Factions in Iraq, targeting tourists in Saudi Arabia/Egypt/Turkey, and among Muslim separatists in Russia

• Many of these attacks linked to Islamic Fundamentalists, who have also attacked Jewish/Christian minorities throughout Europe and Middle East

• End of cold war removed last obstacles for true global interactions/trade, as currencies were no longer tied to old alliances and new business opportunities emerged. Globally integrated financial networks emerged with the dev. Of Instant communication (internet)

• Competition drove global developments: Regional trading networks emerged (NAFTA, EEC that later became EU tied to Euro). Ease of access of goods/ideas across the world has led to cultures being more integrated (ex: you can find a starbucks in BeJing’s forbidden city) and instant access to wider range of music, art, literature, information

• EU formed to give US economic competition, by binding Europe into single market. Plus, power vacuum formed by dissolution of Soviet Union, leaving US as sole superpower and driving EU.

• EU has 3 branches: Executive, legislative, judicial. Electionsheld in Europe every 5 years, formation of Eurozone led all EU nations to adopt euro (except UK, Sweden, Denmark)

• Economic integration seemed easy, but Crisis of late 2000s would establish that stronger economies (ex: germany) would bear the weakness of a struggling economy (Greece), and as a result, economic collapse of certain states (Greece, Ireland, portugal) threatened to destabilize Eurozone

• Change/Continuity: “Mcdonaldization” is the process and example of the spread of western culture to the rest of the world. Ex: Many countries have integrated assimilating aspects of Western culture into their own while religiously conflicting nations (ex: islamic fundamentalist movements in some Muslim countries) reject this “invasion,” percieving it as a threat to their holy ways.

• By normalizing US relations (1990s) and being accepted in World Trade Organization in 2001, China has become industrial/economic juggernaut. Starting from special economic zones exempt from strict communism controls created the world’s warehouse/ discount store, with Chinese imports being prominent across the world

• New/Profitable industrial revolution in CHina has funded infrastructure in China and contributed to a rising middle class who can embrace Western Culture (Ex: McDonalds, Starbucks)

• However, political side is still same old CCP, and internet is severely monitored, as a result of economic success.

• India is the world’s largest democracy and one of the fastest growing economies. By privatizing or publicly trading major industries, India was able to reinvent its economy, saving it from its brokenness in 1991.

• Additionally, its biggest asset is its educated/skilled workforce while its biggest downside is the traditional industry advocated by Gandhi that had made it unable to compete globally.

• Moment of opportunity for growth came during computer chip boom, with Indian investors and workers migrating to the Silicon Valley area, taking this knowledge back home, and forming large industries (Infosys, Tata) that built on the global demand for software, new technology and support.

• China/India are Nuclear powers with some of the world’s largest armies. Dealing with conflictive neighbors (Pakistan/North korea) and having complicated relationships/ history with Western Powers, India and China have to deal with economic inequality and poverty within its borders.

• As members of G20 (next Paragraph) they were able to find ways to continue growing while much of the industrialized world is in economic slowdown.

• Globalization of trade has brought agencies designed to protect trade, such as IMF, World Bank (made to stabilize world economic relations and to loan financial assistance)

• General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) agreed upon to reduce barriers to international trade, eventually forming the WTO in 1994, boasting most of the world’s active trading nations.

• G6 - World’s major industrialized democracies, now known as G8 by containing US, Britain, West Germany, Italy, Japan, France, Canada/Russia (later joined), with Russia excluded in 2014 due to Crimea crisis in Ukraine, renaming to G7

• Leaders meet annually to discuss issues of mutual/global concern, such as climate change, terrorism, trade

• Group of 19 Nations + EU representatives make G20 (Group of 20 Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors), representing key industrialized + developing countries

• Environmental issues focused on localized pollition/waste management up until 1980s, where global integration brought global environmental concerns, focusing on food (suppliers becoming more distant from consumers + increasing supply routes may lead to lack of safety regulation enforcement)

• “Green Revolution” of 1950s-1960s: increased agricultural production through industrialization (chemical fertilizers/pesticides, biologically engineered foods, more efficient farming practices.

• Result: Inexpensive/Plentiful food supplies but destruction of traditional landscapes (rainforests), loss of species biodiversity, fostered social conflicts

• Notable in Easter/Sub-saharan Africa (political mismanagement caused famine in 1970s), marginal lands cant sustain increasing population simply with new industrial tech

• Water crucial resource: carelessly managed by cities, not rapidly renewable, must be regulated for drinking/agriculture.

• Similar to Oil consumption: Countries want more and want it cheap, because it fuels so many aspects (industry, transport, heating of businesses/homes) of life.

• Thirst for Oil reserves has led to strange political/economic alliances

• Global Warming: Human activities contribute to warming of planet, which then causes climate change. Kyoto Protocol: attempt at global agreement to reduce environmental damages, but US refusal to ratify it + Canda denouncing it makes it controvercial.

• Industrialized nations continue struggling with balancing potential damage to environment with growth potential of business (its all about the money - business of production and consumption is primary importance to policymakers)

• Relief of health crises is a primary focus of globalization efforts. Orgnaizations like WHO are working to fix plenty of problems: infant mortality, combat influenza among various other diseases (especially in developing areas without good sanitation)

• Example of Health Crisis: AIDS, prominent in sub-Saharan Africa where 25% of adults in some countries live with HIV. No cure and treatment can help, but wealthier countries tend to have better, more advanced treaments

• Global Efforts: Focused on prevention (changing social norms/behaviors of populations at risk)

• Other Health Issues: Cholera (not a threat in developed countries), where new treatments have helped to lower mortality rates. Ebola in West Africa also dangerous.

• Global Health issues highlight the disparities that, despite the ongoing process of globalization, still exist between first-world, industrialized countries and those that are not.

• Single most important technological advancement (+ Internet): American companies such as Compaq and IBM developed new hardware to shrink computer size, making PCs a reality.

• More homes got computers, and commercial software (America Online offered services and programs, web browsers) introduced Internet to American population, transforming workplace and the home.

• Y2K Scare: Possible glitch in computers caused by switch of dates from 1999 to 2000, showed dependence of industry and society on internet and computers.

• Personal computers and similar technologies (cell phones) are crucial today to the personal and global business lives of many

• Social media/Spread of internet have had massive effects worldwide: Twitter/Facebook have changed the way news is reported, and have played political roles too!

• Ex: “Arab Spring” of 2011, where oppressive regimes in several nations were toppled with social media exposure

• Internet censorship exists in many nations (India, China) but still continues to bring people together in business and other aspects of life

• Concern: Gap in internet access between those in developed/underdeveloped countries, as the importance of internet and computer technology serve as a barrier to globalization in countries without the infrastructure to join this “digital revolution”

• Concern: Government surveillance and individual privacy: Many consider it to be unconstitutional and unnecessary, while others believe that it is necessary to stop any kinds of attacks that may be correlated online.

• Ex: Edward Snowden leaked many classified documents detailing the US storing data from all of its citizens, with similar revelations sparking loud international debate in Europe, Asia, Latin America.

II: Changes and Continuities in the Role of Women

• Dramatic changes brought to women’s social, political, economic roles with the coming of the 20th century: integration/global connectedness made education more accessible and political freedoms more widespread (especially among middle/upper classes)

• Women gained right to vote, and after WW2 newly independent African countries even gave Women’s suffrage. However in Middle Eastern Fundamentalist countries women’s rights are still restrictive.

• In Asian/African countries, access to political power continues to be limited for women.

• Contradictions: Women played key roles in communist revolutions of Russia, China, and Cuba, with open educational opportunities (particularly medicine) and legal rights present. However, in reality, discrimination and gender issues still persist

• Almost all key positions within communist parties were/are held by men, and the one-child policy and mandatory sterilization in China drastically affected women/female children, as many wanted men to continue bloodline

• End of communism -> loosening of economic restrictions seems to present more opportunities for men, rather than women.

• Structures changed dramatically, especially in industrialized world: Birth rates dropped, birth control became available, marriage rates declined with divorve/second marriages becoming more common

• Role of Women at Work: Women’s presence in workforce more widely accepted since the wage labor in factories during the world Wars. Shifting to profitable industries (chemicals, textiles, electronics) has provided more economic opportunities.

• Education/access in westernized/industrialized countries allowed women to fully participate in workforce by the mid-1980s.

• Contradiction: Women in agricultural economies continue to have their labor under-enumerated, and throughout the world, women’s pay still has yet to equal male counterparts + no compensation yet for time women spend taking care of women.